Karma and Reincarnation:
A Philosophical Examination
By Joseph Morales
lumiere@home.com
Copyright © 1996-2000, All Rights Reserved
Being philosophically-minded, I have always found the descriptions of the doctrine of karma by Eastern teachers to be frustratingly vague. So I set out to find out what, exactly, the doctrine of karma is, and why we should believe it. The resulting study is somewhat lengthy, so I have now broken it into small topics that you can read individually.
•	Readings in the Theory of Karma
A selection of quotations from mostly Hindu scriptures and teachers, explaining all the major aspects of the theory of karma. 
•	Problems in the Theory of Karma
An examination of the many difficult philosophical questions raised by the traditional Hindu theory of karma. 
•	Evaluating the Theory of Karma 
An attempt to evaluate the accuracy of the doctrine of karma, bringing a variety of different perspectives to bear upon the problem. 
•	Buddhist Views on Karma
•	Taoist Views on Karma
•	A Sufi View of Rebirth: Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
A short article on a view of rebirth taught by a Sheikh of Islamic or Sufi mysticism.
•	Karma Bibliography
A listing of the works quoted and referenced in the previous sections.
•	The Hindu Theory of World Cycles
A systematic presentation of the theory of world ages described by Hindu scripture and its relationship to modern science. The system of ages described in the Puranas is described in detail, including kalpas, manvantaras, maha yugas, Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga. Current scientific theories of evolution and periodic mass extinctions are also explored.
Table of Contents
Karma and Reincarnation:	
Readings in the Theory of Karma	
The Wheel of Rebirth	
The Law of Action	
The Law of Desire	
Samskaras	
Evolution from Lower Forms	
The Threefold Karma	
Prarabdha Karma	
Types of Prarabdha	
Environmental Conditions for Karma	
Law of the Last Thought	
The Experience of Death	
The Reincarnating Being	
The Intermediate State	
Experiences After Death	
The Path of the Gods	
The Path of the Fathers	
The Worlds of Blind Darkness	
Length of Time Before Rebirth	
The Return to Earth Plane	
The Fruition of Karma	
Circumstances in Future Births	
Penance	
Regression to Lower Forms	
Effects on Character	
Assumption by the Guru	
Destruction by Meditation	
Free Will and Destiny	
Karma Yoga	
Rebirth of Fallen Yogis	
The Realized Being	
Projection of the Soul	
The Night of Brahma	
Collective Karma	
The Problem of Desires	
What Aspect of an Action is Returned to You?	
Doesn't this Contradict the Law of Desire?	
Whose Samskaras?	
Example 1: Action Returned by the Recipient	
Example 2: Action Not Returned by the Recipient	
Example 3: Actions Committed Against an Unknowing Recipient	
Example 4: Actions Returned by Other Than the Recipient	
Example 5: Actions Completely Due to Others' Karma	
The Problem of Complexity	
The Problem of Residual Karma	
The Problem of Conflicting Desires	
The Problem of Failed and Accidental Actions	
The Problem of Astral Vs. Physical Fruition	
The Problems of Birth and Death	
The Problem of Physical Vs. Psychic Causation	
Physical Anomalies	
Psychological Anomalies	
Psycho-Physical Anomalies	
The Problem of Non-Profit	
The Problem of Prarabdha	
The Problem of Spiritual Evolution	
The Problem of Changing Population	
The Problem of Identity	
The Mind-Body Problem	
The Problem of Unequal Evolution	
The Problem of Suffering	
Evaluating the Theory of Karma	
Paranormal Knowledge	
The Perception of Karma	
The Role of Scripture	
Second-Hand Knowledge	
Consistency and Explanatory Power	
Internal Consistency	
Consistency with Other Teachers	
Explanatory Power	
Correctness of Related Teachings	
Caste System	
Sacred Animals	
Status of Widows	
World Cycles	
Geography	
Astronomy and the Heavens	
Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations	
Intuitive "Rightness"	
The Moral Order	
Continuing Existence	
Symmetry	
Simplicity	
The Divine Imperative	
Scientific Study	
Conclusion	
Buddhist Views of Reincarnation	
Questions Which Tend Not to Edification	
Buddhist Cosmology	
The Miseries of Rebirth	
The Enlightened One	
What Reincarnates?	
Karma and Causality	
The Negative Acts and Positive Acts	
Factors Affecting the Strength of Karmas	
The Different Types of Results of Actions	
Karma and Freedom	
Merit and Its Transfer	
Bodhisattvas	
The Bardo or After-Death Journey	
Propelling and Completing Karma	
The Six Realms	
Tulkus or Divine Emanations	
Taoist Views on Karma	
A Sufi View of Rebirth: Bawa Muhaiyaddeen	
Arrival of the Soul	
Rebirths in This Very Life	
Free Will and Destiny	
State Shortly After Death	
The Questioning in the Grave	
The Importance of Burial	
Rebirths in Lower Forms	
Punishment in the Grave	
Heaven	
The Final Judgment	
Hell	
How Did Bawa Know These Things?	
Differences from the Doctrine of Reincarnation	
Similarities to the Doctrine of Reincarnation	
Similarities in Method and Realization	
Addendum	
More Information	
The Hindu Theory of World Cycles	
Traditional Puranic Model	
Maha Yugas	
Brahma Days (Kalpas)	
Brahma Years	
Brahma Life	
Manvantaras	
Our Position in History	
Variant Interpretations of Hindu Chronology	
Sri Yukteswar	
Paramahansa Yogananda	
David Frawley	
Alain Danielou	
Rishi Singh Gerwal	
Yugas and Science	
Great Culture Preceded Us	
Cyclic Catastrophes	
Downward Trend	
Conclusion	
References	
Traditional Puranic Chronology	
Variant Interpretations of Hindu Chronology	
Summaries of Scientific Theory	
Karma Bibliography	
Scriptures Cited in this Study:	
Modern Works Cited in this Study:	

Readings in the Theory of Karma
The Wheel of Rebirth
This vast universe is a wheel. Upon it are all creatures that are subject to birth, death, and rebirth. Round and round it turns, and never stops. It is the wheel of Brahman. As long as the individual self thinks it is separate from Brahman, it revolves upon the wheel in bondage to the laws of birth, death, and rebirth. But when through the grace of Brahma it realizes its identity with him, it revolves upon the wheel no longer. It achieves immortality.
Svetasvatara Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 118

Consider how it was with the forefathers; behold how it is with the later (men); a mortal ripens like corn, and like corn is born again.
Katha Upanishad (Radhakrishnan), I.1.6

15:7 An eternal portion of Myself, having become a living soul in a world of living beings, draws to itself the five senses, with the mind for the sixth, which abide in Prakriti.
15:8 When the lord acquires a body, and when he leaves it, he takes these with him and goes on his way, as the wind carries away the scents from their places.
15:9 Presiding over the ear and eye, the organs of touch, taste, and smell, and also over the mind, he experiences sense-objects.
15:10 The deluded do not perceive him when he departs from the body or dwells in it, when he experiences objects or is united with the gunas; but they who have the eye of wisdom perceive him.
Bhagavad Gita

The Law of Action 
According to the doctrine of karma, for every morally determinate thought, word, or action, there will be corresponding karmic compensation, if not in this life, then in some future life. As a man sows, so shall he reap.
K. L. Sheshagiri Rao, in Pappu, 23

He, as the Self, resides in all forms, but is veiled by ignorance... At death he is born again, and the circumstances of his new life are determined by his past deeds and by the habits he has formed.
Kaivalya Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 115

2:14. Experiences of pleasure and of pain are the results of merit and demerit, respectively.
Patanjali

4:7. The karma of the yogi is neither white nor black. The karma of others is of three kinds: white, black, or mixed.
Patanjali

The Law of Desire
Others, however, say that a person consists of desires. As is his desire, so is his will; as is his will, so is the deed he does, whatever deed he does, that he attains.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.5

The desires we get are actually samskaras. They are formed in this way: 
1. Having union with an object, possessing it.
2. The object is not present, but stays in the mind.
3. A craving for the object is created.
4. The craving makes a print on the mind which remains after death (samskara).
Desire is the third stage. We don't feel the first two stages, they are too subtle. Samskaras recreate desires in the next birth automatically. A person can get the desire to steal though brought up in a good family. He himself can't understand why he desires it.
These desires develop more when they are fulfilled. Desires can be overcome by controlling them; we have to put a limit on desires.
Baba Hari Dass, 116

The karmic law requires that every human wish find ultimate fulfillment. Nonspiritual desires are thus the chain that binds man to the reincarnational wheel.
Paramahansa Yogananda, 360

...Vedanta says that at the root of the source of the desires is your own Atma which is Truth personified. As such, all desires, good or bad, have got to be materialized. They must be true, because they emanate from Atma, the Truth incarnate. This very Atma, which is the source of all Power, is called God or Ishwara. Therefore, all his desires must indubitably be fulfilled.
Well! The question is that, if in the opinion of Vedanta, all the desires are to be fulfilled, how is it that they are not seen being fulfilled? No body sees his desires materialize all the time. Therefore, it may appear that the assertion of Vedanta is wrong. But Vedanta clears this doubt as well... Some have too many and also big desires within them... It is no wonder, if the cases of such persons (men of desires) may take two, three or even more adjournments (lives and rebirths etc.) for the final judgment (fulfillment of desires)... But it must be remembered that all desires are bound to be fulfilled in course of time. There can be no doubt about it. Therefore, if the desires of any man are not fulfilled early, it means that it is due to his own faults. If, however, they want to see their desires fulfilled early, they should have only a few simple and selfless desires...
Vedanta says that the desires, being innumerable, are often left unfulfilled at the time of the death of a man. To desire is also a sort of action. He, therefore, takes other birth or births to see his desires fulfilled. And, the materialization of these unfulfilled desires may be called destiny. That is why, our scriptures have mentioned that it is because of our own desires, hopes and aspirations that we take other birth or births after death.
Swami Rama Tirtha, 263-265

...Rama will say that generally all the prayers are not accepted. But the prayers of some of the persons do materialize... they are accepted, only when the person praying is intensely merged in his prayer and, knowingly or unknowingly, has reached a stage where he has lost himself in his oneness with God... It is only under such circumstances that our prayers are accepted, because at that moment the person praying is established in his real Self which is Truth personified. As such, his prayers are bound to come true.
Swami Rama Tirtha, 272

Q. If a thing comes to me without any planning or working for it and I enjoy it, will there be no bad consequences from it? 
A. It is not so. Every act must have its consequences. If anything comes your way by reason of prarabdha, you can't help it. If you take what comes, without any special attachment, and without any desire for more of it or for a repetition of it, it will not harm you by leading to further births. On the other hand, if you enjoy it with great attachment and naturally desire for more of it, it is bound to lead to more and more births.
Ramana Maharshi, 221-222

Samskaras
2:12. A man's latent tendencies have been created by his past thoughts and actions. These tendencies will bear fruits, both in this life and in lives to come.
2:13. So long as the cause exists, it will bear fruits--such as rebirth, a long or short life, and the experiences of pleasure and of pain.
Patanjali

Every action that you do produces a two-fold effect. It produces an impression in your mind and when you die you carry the Samskara in the Karmashaya or receptacle of works in your subconscious mind. It produces an impression on the world or Akashic records.
Swami Sivananda (1), 95

If you eat a mango, if you do any kind of work, it produces an impression in the subconscious mind or Chitta. This impression is called Samskara or tendency. Whatever you see, hear, feel, smell or taste causes Samskaras. The acts of breathing, thinking, feeling and willing produce impressions. These impressions are indestructible. They can only be fried in toto by Asamprajnata Samadhi. Man is a bundle of Samskaras. Man is a bundle of impressions. It is these Samskaras that bring a man again and again to this physical plane. They are the cause for rebirths. These Samskaras assume the form of very big waves through memory, internal or external stimulus.
Swami Sivananda (1), 95

The impulse behind most human actions insofar as man is a psychophysical being comes from what are called samskaras (subliminal and latent tendencies) and vasanas (desires rooted in the psyche at an unconscious level but their force is also consciously felt). Each human being is born with a certain configuration of these samskaras and vasanas (their precise nature determined by action in a previous life) and these, felt as attraction towards some things and aversion towards others, act as driving forces behind our actions, insofar as we act out the dharma of our being as part of nature.
Pratima Bowes, in Pappu, 175

Evolution from Lower Forms
The various stages of existence, Maitreya, are inanimate things, insects, fish, birds, animals, men, holy men, gods and liberated spirit, each in succession a thousand times superior to that which precedes it and through these stages things that are either in heaven or in hell are destined to proceed until final liberation be obtained.
Vishnu Purana, Vol. II, trans. W.H. Wilson. London: Trubner and Co. 1864, p. 22. Quoted by Pratima Bowes in Pappu, 171.

According to some Hindu commentators on scriptures a jiva (life-force) is granted a human life only after going through 8,400,000 previous incarnations of lower forms of life -- 2,000,000 as a plant, 900,000 as aquatic, 100,000 as insects, 100,000 as a bird, 300,000 as a cow, 400,000 as a monkey.
Louis Renou, The Nature of Hinduism. New York: Walker & Co., 1962, pg. 67. Quoted by Pratima Bowes in Pappu, 174

...Individualized souls transmigrate from one body to another after death in their passage of evolution from vegetative kingdom to animal kingdom and finally to the human plane, human kind being the perfect body. Vegetable, animal and human bodies serve the souls as vehicles in their upward journey. The total number of different kinds of carriages is supposed to be 84 lacs.* But, human being the highest evolved form, is the best instrument for God realization...
It is claimed that through human body only moksha or emancipation from the wheels of Maya is possible, and not through the bodies of even gods residing in higher spheres. They too have to come down and take up the bodies of men, which only hold key to the door of evolution to God realization.
Swami Vishnu Tirtha, 22-25 [*Ed. note: 1 lac = 100,000]

4:2. The transformation of one species into another is caused by the inflowing of nature.
Patanjali

Q. Is the individual capable of spiritual progress in an animal body? 
A. Not impossible, though it is exceedingly rare. It is not true that birth as a man is necessarily the highest, and that one must attain realization only from being a man. Even an animal can attain Self-realization.
Ramana Maharshi, 197

In fact no evolution is possible from the stage of the mineral to that of the vegetable, for there is nothing in the mineral that can evolve... The whole mineral kingdom has emerged out of the Tamasic aspect of Maya and it forms the material which goes to make the bodies of the Jivas and their means and places of support; mineral matter not composing the body of any Jiva is called "inanimate" or "inorganic," not because there is no life at all in it--for it has its very existence in the life of Ishwara--but because there is no separate coordinating life-principle connecting together the several atoms in harmonious co-operation for serving some common end... The view that is now and then expressed from the modern Theosophical platform: "every grain of sand has its Jivatma" is clearly wrong and opposed to the clear statement in the holy books that the Jivas are to be found only in four classes of bodies, viz., Jarayuja, Andaja, Svedaja and Udbhijja...
Swami Sivananda (1), 193-194

The law of Karma and justice, if it is true at all, shows unmistakably that there is no real foundation for the notion that there is evolution going on below the stage of man. Every brute, every little insect and every one of the plants and trees, all were, and are going to be again human beings themselves. They are only temporarily suspended from the class of humanity for some offenses.
Swami Sivananda (1), 195

The Threefold Karma
What is threefold karma?
It is: 1) Samchit (collected), the unfinished mass of actions of past births, both good and bad, yet to be worked out and which appear in this birth in the form of desires -- in other words samskaras; 2) Prarabdha (detained), the result of karma already worked out in a previous life which appears in the present life in the form of fate; 3) Agami (present), the karma we are continually making in our present actions and will be making in our future actions.
Baba Hari Dass, 47

Karma is divided into four categories: sanchita karma, or the accumulated past actions; prarabdha karma, or that part of sanchita karma which results in this present birth and is known as predestination; kriyamana karma, or present willful actions, or free will; and agami karma, or the immediate results caused by our present actions.
Sant Keshavadas, 8

Prarabdha Karma
Q. It is said that prarabdha karma is only a small fraction of the karma accumulated from previous lives. Is this true? 
A. A man might have performed many karmas in his previous births. A few of these alone will be chosen for this birth and he will have to enjoy their fruits in this birth. It is something like a slide show where the projectionist picks a few slides to be exhibited at a performance, the remaining slides being reserved for another performance...The different karmas are the slides, karmas being the result of past experiences, and the mind is the projector. The projector must be destroyed so that there will be no further reflection and no further births and no deaths.
Q. Who is the projectionist? What is the mechanism that selects a small portion of the sanchita karma and then decides that it shall be experienced as prarabdha karma? 
A. Individuals have to suffer their karma but Iswara manages to make the best of their karmas for his purpose. God manipulates the fruits of karma but he does not add or take away from it. The subconscious of man is a warehouse of good and bad karma. Iswara chooses from this warehouse what he sees will best suit the spiritual evolution at the time of each man, whether pleasant or painful. Thus there is nothing arbitrary.
Q. In Upadesa Saram you say that karma bears fruit by the ordinance of God [karta]. Does this mean that we reap the consequences of karma solely because God wills it? 
A. In this verse karta [God] means Iswara. He is the one who distributes the fruits of actions to each person according to his karma. That means that he is the manifest Brahman. The real Brahman is unmanifest and without motion. It is only the manifest Brahman that is named as Iswara. He gives the fruit to each person according to his actions [karma]. That means that Iswara is only an agent and that he gives wages according to the labor done. That is all. Without this shakti [power] of Iswara, this karma would not take place. That is why karma is said to be on its own, inert.
Ramana Maharshi, 218-219

Kabir says in this connection that on the sixth day after the birth of a child, when a special rite is performed, God Himself comes down and decides the destiny of the child, and that cannot be altered. So the allotted span of your life can neither be increased nor decreased. Tulsidas also says that whatever had to be allotted has already been allotted. Therefore, you should live free from anxiety.
Swami Muktananda (4), 17

There is a poet-saint whose one statement is very well known in our country. He says that whatever is written by destiny on the sixth day after your birth can never be blotted out. Shaktipat follows the writ of prarabdha.
Swami Muktananda (4), 45

Types of Prarabdha
There are three types of prarabdha: iccha, aniccha, pariccha.
Swami Muktananda (3), 327

Prarabdha karma is of three categories, ichha, anichha and parechha [personally desired, without desire, and due to others' desire]. For the one who has realized the Self, there is no ichha-prarabdha but the two others, anichha and parechha, remain.
Ramana Maharshi, 220

Environmental Conditions for Karma
4:8 Of the tendencies produced by these three kinds of karma, only those are manifested for which the conditions are favorable.
4:9 Because of our memory of past tendencies, the chain of cause and effect is not broken by change of species, space, or time.
Patanjali 4:8-9

Good and bad samskaras are like seeds of different plants kept in a bottle: some grow in winter, some in the summer, and some in the rainy season. If you throw all the seeds on the earth, the seed which grows in that season will grow and the others will remain dormant.
Exactly the same thing happens with samskaras. All kinds of samskaras are there but they grow according to the person, place, or thing with which we associate. If we go with depraved people, the bad samskaras will automatically come up and good samskaras will remain dormant. If we sit with a truthful person, samskaras or truthfulness will automatically come up. A human being is not entirely bound by samskaras, otherwise it would be useless to try to attain enlightenment.
Baba Hari Dass, 120

Law of the Last Thought
For whatever object a man thinks of at the final moment, when he leaves his body -- that alone does he attain, O son of Kunti, being ever absorbed in the thought thereof.
Therefore, at all times constantly remember me and fight. With your mind and understanding absorbed in Me, you will surely come to Me.
Bhagavad Gita, 8:6-7

You might say that, according to the common belief, a man is reborn according to his thoughts at the time of his death. How, then, can this belief be reconciled to the theory that the rebirth is caused by the unfulfilled desires to be fulfilled in the next life? ...The ideas and the thoughts which come at the time of the death of a man are responsible for his next life. But, at the same time, the Vedanta asserts that at the time of death only those thoughts and desires come to mind, which were upper most during the life of the man.
Swami Rama Tirtha, 265

The Experience of Death
The point of his heart becomes lighted up and by that light the self departs either through the eye or the head or through other apertures of the body. And when he thus departs, life departs after him. And when life thus departs, all vital breaths depart after it. He becomes one with intelligence. What has intelligence departs with him. His knowledge and his work take hold of him as also his past experience.
Just as a leech (or caterpillar) when it has come to the end of a blade of grass, after having made another approach (to another blade), draws itself together towards it, so does this self, after having thrown away the body, and dispelled ignorance, after having another approach (to another body) draw itself together (for making the transition to another body).
And as a goldsmith, taking a piece of gold turns it into another, newer and more beautiful shape, even so does this self, after having thrown away this body and dispelled its ignorance, make unto himself another, new and more beautiful shape like that of the fathers or of the gandharvas, or of the gods or of Praja-pati or of Brahma or of other beings.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.2 

So long as Prana pulls up and Apana pulls down the life-forces there is continuity of life. But the moment either of these forces becomes weaker, there is an exit of the life-force. If the Apana gives way then Jiva will pass out of the body through either the head or the nose or the ear or the mouth. If the Prana gives way then it will pass out of the body through the anus.
Swami Sivananda (2), 199

Q. How does the jiva transfer from one body to another? 
A. When one begins to die, hard breathing sets in; that means that one has become unconscious of the dying body. The mind at once takes hold of another body, and it swings to and fro between the two, until attachment is fully transferred to the new body. Meanwhile there are occasional violent breaths, and that means that the mind swings back to the dying body. The transitional state of the mind is somewhat like a dream.
Ramana Maharshi, 198

Amrita: If all death is the same, regardless of how one dies, why did Bhisma wait for sixteen days on his bed of arrows for the auspicious hour to die?
Baba: There is only one death. Death is only of one kind. But the manner of dying depends on karma. Different kinds of inner minds are reflected in the manner of dying... Bhisma waited not for death, but for an auspicious hour, when the sun turned towards its northward course. Everything should be done at the auspicious hour because that has great power.
Swami Muktananda (3), 54

The Reincarnating Being
Yoga asserts that the pranic fluid goes towards the navel, where there is a secondary subtle center; thence during the death agony it rises towards the heart. The manas, the mind, also tends from the brain towards the heart, and the union of these two currents in the center of the heart forms a subtle entity which disengages itself by degrees from the breast of the dying man, and commences to "be" on the subtle plane, which is that of its heavier "matter," the matter of the physical body only existing as a support.
Jacques Riviere, 106-107

When a man dies he carries with him the permanent Linga Sarira, which is made up of 5 Jnana Indriyas, 5 Karma Indriyas, 5 Pranas, mind, Buddhi, Chitta, and Ahamkara and the changing Karmasraya (receptacle of works), the actions of the soul, which determines the formation of the next life.
Swami Sivananda (2), 87

Q. Is the Buddhist view, that there is no continuous entity answering to the ideas of the individual soul, correct or not? Is this consistent with the Hindu notion of a reincarnating ego? Is the soul a continuous entity that reincarnates again and again, according to Hindu doctrine, or is it a mere mass of mental tendencies--samskaras? 
A. The real Self is continuous and unaffected. The reincarnating ego belongs to the lower plane, namely, thought. It is transcended by Self-realization.
Reincarnations are due to a spurious offshoot. Therefore they are denied by the Buddhists. The present state of ignorance is due to the identification of consciousness [chit] with the insentient [jada] body.
Ramana Maharshi, 195

But it must be distinctly understood that it is no soul which comes and goes, but only the thinking mind of the individual, which makes it appear to do so. On whatever plane the mind happens to act, it creates a body for itself; in the physical world a physical body and in the dream world a dream body that becomes wet with dream rain and sick with dream disease. After the death of the physical body...soon it becomes active again in a new world and a new body--the astral--till it assumes another body in what is called a "rebirth." 
Ramana Maharshi, 197

The Intermediate State
The most widely accepted Brahmanical description of this mechanism is strongly biological in tone. We are told that after severing its connection with the human body, the soul dwells for some twelve days in a transitional ghostly form (preta). Thereafter, freed from this limbo through ritual offerings (sraddha) by the son of the deceased, it travels upward to the "realm of the father" (pitr-loka),there to remain for an indeterminate period.
Padmanabh S. Jaini, in O'Flaherty, 220-221

After the death of the physical body, the mind remains inactive for some time, as in dreamless sleep when it remains worldless and therefore bodiless. But soon it becomes active again in a new world and a new body--the astral...
Ramana Maharshi, 197

There are two states for man -- the state in this world, and the state in the next; there is also a third state, the state intermediate between these two, which can be likened to dream. While in the intermediate state, and man experiences both the other states, that in this world and that in the next; and the manner thereof is as follows: When he dies, he lives only in the subtle body, on which are left the impressions of his past deeds, and of these impressions he is aware, illumined as they are by the pure light of the Self. Thus it is that in the intermediate state he experiences the first state, or that of life in the world. Again, while in the intermediate state, he foresees both the evils and the blessings that will yet come to him, as these are determined by his conduct, good or bad, upon the earth, and by the character in which this conduct has resulted. Thus it is that in the intermediate state he experiences the second state, or that of life in the world to come.
In the intermediate state there are no real chariots, nor horses, nor roads; but by the light of the Self he creates chariots and horses and roads. There are no real blessings, nor joys, nor pleasures; but he creates blessings and joys and pleasures. There are no real ponds, nor lakes, nor rivers; but he creates ponds and lakes and rivers. He is the creator of all these out of the impression left by his past deeds.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 105 

Experiences After Death
Some say that those who after death pass into the path of light are not reborn, whereas those who after death take the path of darkness are reborn after they have enjoyed the fruits of karma in their subtle bodies.
Ramana Maharshi, 198 
•	The Path of the Gods
•	The Path of the Fathers
•	The Worlds of Blind Darkness
•	Length of Time Before Rebirth
•	The Return to the Earth Plane

The Path of the Gods
On this there are the following verses: "The narrow ancient path which stretches far away, has been touched (found) by me, has been realized by me. By it, the wise, the knowers of Brahman go up to the heavenly world after the fall of the body, being freed (even while living).
"On that path they say there is white, blue, yellow, green, and red. That path was found by a Brahmana and by it goes the knower of Brahman, the doer of right and the shining one."
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.8-9

Verily, when a person departs from this world, he goes to the air. It opens out there for him like the hole of a chariot wheel. Through that he goes upwards. He goes to the sun. It opens out for him like the hole of a lambara. Through that he goes upwards. He reaches the moon. It opens out there for him like the hole of a drum. Through that he goes upwards. He goes to the world free from grief, free from snow. There he dwells eternal years.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.10.1

... Then when he dies,
They carry him to (be offered in) fire. His fire itself becomes the fire, fuel the fuel, smoke the smoke, flame the flame, coals the coals, sparks the sparks. In this fire the gods offer a person. Out of this offering the person, having the colour of light, arises.
Those who know this as such and those too who meditate with faith in the forest on the truth, pass into the light, from the light into the day, from the day into the half-month of the waxing moon, from the half-month of the waxing moon into the six months during which the sun travels northward, from these months into the world of the gods, from the world of the gods to the sun, from the sun into the lightning (fire). Then a person consisting (born) of mind goes to those regions of lightning and leads them to the worlds of Brahman. In these worlds of Brahma they live for long periods. Of these there is no return.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VI.2.13-15

So those who know this, and those who in the forest meditate on faith as austerity (or with faith and austerity) go to light and from light to day, from day to the bright half of the month (of the waxing moon), from the bright half of the month to those six months during which the sun moves northward.
From these months to the year, from the year to the sun, from the sun to the moon, from the moon to the lightning. There, there is a person who is non-human. He leads them on to Brahma. This is the path leading to the gods.
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.9.1-2

Now, the self is the bridge, the (separating) boundary for keeping these worlds apart. Over that bridge day and night do not cross, nor old age nor death, nor sorrow, nor well-doing nor ill-doing. All evils turn back from it for the Brahma-world is freed from evil.
Therefore, verily, on crossing that bridge, if one is blind he becomes no longer blind, if wounded he becomes no longer wounded, if afflicted he becomes no longer afflicted. Therefore, verily, on crossing that bridge, night appears even as day for that Brahma-world is ever-illumined.
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VIII.4.1-3

Now as for these arteries (channels) of the heart, they consist of a fine substance which is reddish-brown, white, blue, yellow, and red. Verily, the sun yonder is reddish-brown, he is white, he is blue, he is yellow, he is red.
Even as a great extending highway runs between two villages, this one and that yonder, even so these rays of the sun go to both these worlds, this one and that yonder. They start from the yonder sun and enter into these arteries. They start from these arteries and enter into yonder sun...
But when thus he departs from this body, then he goes upwards by these very rays or he goes up with the thought of aum. As his mind is failing, he goes to the sun. That, verily, is the gateway of the world, an entering in for the knowers a shutting out for the non-knowers.
On this there is this verse.
A hundred and one are the arteries of the heart, one of them leads up to the crown of the head. Going upward through that, one becomes immortal: the others serve for going in various other directions, for going in various other directions.
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VIII.6.1-2, 5-6

A hundred and one are the arteries of the heart; one of them leads up to the crown of the head. Going upward through that, one becomes immortal; the others serve for going to various other directions.
Katha Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), II.3.16

It is necessary that the subtle forces and the manas which contains the consciousness of the dying man should come out of the top of the head through a fissure called Brahma's hole, which plays a great part in Asian anatomy.
If the human being disengages himself thus, says the tradition, he retains a clear consciousness of his state, and, above all, at a given moment (twenty to twenty-five minutes after apparent death), experience the ecstatic state which is an absolute reproduction of the samadhi of the yogi, a state which permits him to realize his union with the divine. This is an opportunity open to every human being who dies, but unfortunately very few become aware of this possibility.
J. Marques Riviere, 107

Then Raikva asked thus: Venerable Sir, How and by what means does this self which is a mass of intelligence after leaving its seat and moving upward have its exit? To him he replied. In the center of the heart is a red mass of flesh. In it is the white lotus called the dahara which has bloomed like a red lotus with its petals spread in different directions. In the middle of it is an ocean. In the middle of the ocean is a sheath. In it are four nadis called Rama, Arama, Iccha and Apunarbhava. Of these, Rama leads (the practitioner of righteousness) through righteousness to the world of righteousness. Arama leads (the practitioner of unrighteousness) through unrighteousness to the world of the unrighteous. Through Iccha one attains whatever object of desire one recalls. Through Apunarbhava one breaks through the sheath. Having broken through the sheath one breaks through the shell of the crust (skull). Having broken through the skull, he breaks through the earth element. Having broken through the earth element he breaks through water. Having broken through water, he breaks through light. Having broken through light, he breaks through air. Having broken through air, he breaks through ether. Having broken through ether he breaks through mind. Having broken through mind, he breaks through the subtle elements. Having broken through the subtle elements, he breaks through the mahat tattva. Having broken through the mahat tattva he breaks through the Unmanifested. Having broken through the Unmanifested, he breaks through the imperishable. Having broken through the imperishable, he breaks through Death. Then Death becomes one with the Supreme. In the Supreme there is neither existence nor non-existence nor existence and non-existence. This is the doctrine leading to liberation. This is the doctrine of the Veda. This is the doctrine of the Veda.
Subala Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), XI.1

But those who practice austerity and faith in the forest, the tranquil knowers who live the life of a mendicant, depart freed from sin, through the door of the sun to where dwells the immortal, imperishable person.
Mundaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.2.5-10

Having entered on this path of the gods, he comes to the world of Agni, then to the world of Vayu, then to the world of Varuna, then to the world of Indra, then to the world of Praja-pati, then to the world of Brahma. This brahma-world, verily, has the lake Ara, the moments yestiha, the river Vijara, the tree Ilya, the city Salajya, the abode Aparajita, the two doorkeepers Indra and Praja-pati, the hall Vibhu, the throne Vicaksana, the couch Amitaujas, the beloved Mansi and her counterpart Caksusi, both of whom taking flowers, verily, weave the worlds, the mothers, the nurses, the nymphs, and the rivers. To it (to such a world) he who knows this comes. To him Brahma runs (advances towards), and says, "It is on account of my glory, verily, he has reached the river, Ageless, He, verily, will not grow old."
Five hundred apsarasas (nymphs) go towards him, one hundred with fruit in their hands, one hundred with ointments in their hands, one hundred with garments in their hands, one hundred with powdered perfume in their hands. They adorn him with the adornment (worthy) of Brahma. He, having been adorned with the adornment of Brahma, goes into (advances towards) Brahma. He comes to the lake Ara and he crosses it with his present sink. He comes to the moments yestiha and they flee from him. He comes to the river Vijara (Ageless); this he crosses with his mind alone. There he shakes off his good deed and those not dear, to the evil deeds. Then just as one driving a chariot looks at the two wheels (without being touched by them), even so he will look at day and night, at good deeds and evil deeds and on all pairs of opposites. Thus one, freed from good and freed from evil, the knower of Brahman, goes on to Brahman.
He comes to the tree Ilya and the fragrance of Brahma enters into him. He comes to the city Salajya; the flavor of Brahma enters into him. He comes to the abode Aparajita; the radiance of Brahma enters into him. He comes to the two door-keepers, Indra and Praja-pati and they run away from him. He comes to the hall Vibhu and the glory of Brahma enters into him. He comes to the throne of Vicaksana; the Saman verses, Brhad and Rathantara, are its two fore feet, the Syaita and the Naudhasa the two hind feet, the Vairupa and the Vairaja, the two lengthwise sides (pieces) the Sakvara and the Raivata are the two cross ones. It is wisdom for by wisdom one sees clearly. He comes to the couch Amitaujas. That is the breathing spirit, the past and the future are its two fore feet, prosperity and the earth are the two hind feet, the Bhadra and the Yajnajayniya the two head pieces, the Brhad and the Rathantara the two lengthwise pieces; the Rg verses and the Saman chants, the cords stretched lengthwise, the yajus formulas the cross ones; the moonbeams the cushion, the udgitha the coverlet, prosperity the pillow. On this (couch) Brahma sits. He who knows this ascends it just with one foot only. Brahma asks him "Who are you?" and he should answer:
I am season, I am connected with the seasons. From space as the source I am produced as the seed for a wife, as the light of the year, as the self of every single being. You are the self of every single being. What you are that am I. He says to him, "Who am I?" He should say, "The Real." What is that called the Real? Whatever is different from the gods (sense organs) and the vital breath that is sat, but the gods and vital breaths are tyam. Therefore this is expressed by the word satyam, all this, whatever there is. All this you are. Thus he speaks to him then. This is declared by a Rg verse.
Kausitaki-Brahmana Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.3-7

8:12-13 He who closes the doors of the senses, confines the mind within the heart, draws the prana into the head, and engages in the practice of yoga, uttering Om, the single syllable denoting Brahman, and meditates on Me -- he who so departs, leaving the body, attains the Supreme Goal.
8:14 I am easy of access to that ever steadfast yogi who, O Partha, constantly meditates on Me and gives no thought to anything else.
8:15 Having come to Me, these high-souled men are no more subject to rebirth, which is transitory and the abode of pain; for they have reached the highest perfection.
Bhagavad Gita

The Path of the Fathers
But those who by sacrificial offerings, charity and austerity conquer the worlds, they pass into the smoke (of the cremation fire), from the smoke into the night, from the night into the half-month of the waning moon, from the half-month of the waning moon into the six months during which the sun travels southward, from these months into the world of the fathers, from the world of the fathers to the moon. Reaching the moon they become food. There the gods, as they say to king Soma, increase, decrease, even so feed upon them there.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VI.2.16

But those, who in the village practice (a life of) sacrifice, (and perform) works of public utility and almsgiving they pass into the smoke, from smoke to night, from night to the latter (dark) half of the month, from the latter (dark) half of the month to the six months in which the sun moves southwards, but they do not reach the year.
From those months to the world of the fathers, from the world of the fathers to space, from space to the moon. That is the king Soma. That is the food of the gods. That the gods eat.
Having dwelt there as long as there is residue (of good works) they return again...
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.10.3-5

Whosoever performs works, makes offerings when these (tongues) are shining and at the proper time, these (offerings) in the form of the rays of the sun lead him to that (world) where the one lord of the gods abides.
The radiant offerings invite him with the words, "come, come," and carry the sacrificer by the rays of the sun, honoring him and saluting him with pleasing words: "This is your holy world of Brahma won through good deeds."
Unsteady, verily, are these boats of the eighteen sacrificial forms, which are said to be inferior karma. The deluded who delight in this as leading to good, fall again into old age and death.
Abiding in the midst of ignorance, wise in their own esteem, thinking themselves to be learned, fools, afflicted with troubles, go about like blind men led by one who is himself blind.
The immature, living manifoldly in ignorance, think "we have accomplished our aim." Since those who perform rituals do not understand (the truth) because of attachment, therefore they sink down, wretched, when their worlds (i.e. the fruits of their merits) are exhausted.
These deluded me, regarding sacrifices and works of merits as most important, do not know any other good. having enjoyed in the high place of heaven won by good deeds, they enter again this world or a still lower one.
Mundaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.2.5-10

Then he said, those who, verily, depart from this world, they all, in truth, go to the moon. In the earlier (bright half), it (the moon) thrives on their breathing spirits, in the latter (dark) half, it causes them to be born (again). The moon, verily, is the door of the world of heaven. Whoever answers it (properly), him it sets free (to go to the higher worlds). But whoever answers it not, him having become rain, it rains down here. Either as a worm, or as an insect or as a fish or as a bird, or as a lion, or as a boar, or as a snake, or as a tiger, or as a person or as some other in this or that condition he is born again according to his deeds, according to his knowledge; when he comes thither, he asks him; who are you? He should answer. From the far-shining, O ye Seasons, the seed was gathered, produced from the fifteenfold from the home of the fathers (the ancestors) sent me in a man as an agent and with a man as an agent, placed me in a mother. So was I born, being born in the twelfth or thirteenth month united to a father of twelve or thirteen months; for the knowledge of this was I, for the knowledge of the opposite of this. Therefore, O ye seasons, bring me on to immortality by this truth, by this austerity I am (like) a season. I am connected with the seasons. Who are you? (the sage asks again) "I am you," he replies. Then he sets him free.
Kausitaki-Brahmana Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.2

A man...goes to the next world bearing in his mind the subtle impressions of his deeds; and after reaping there the harvest of his deeds, he returns again to this world of action.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 109

...the scriptures do not proclaim any competence for acquiring fresh karma in heaven or hell or among lower creatures...
Sankaracarya, Brahma-Sutra Bhasya, III.i.8

When a man who has done meritorious actions dies, he becomes a Deva or god and dwells in heaven. He enjoys various kinds of pleasures in heaven. During his period of stay in heaven he does not do any fresh karma or action. Dwelling in heaven is simply a reward for his past good actions. In the Deva form he does not perform any Karma at all.
Swami Sivananda (2), 115

But the disadvantages of heaven are great indeed. In the celestial region, a person, while enjoying the fruits of acts he had already performed, cannot perform any other new act. He must enjoy the fruits of the former life till they are completely exhausted. Further he is liable to fall after he has completely exhausted his merit. These are the disadvantages of heaven. The consciousness of those about to fall is stupefied. It is also agitated by emotions. As the garlands of those about to fall fade away, fear possesses their hearts.
Swami Sivananda (2), 117

Heaven is a plane of enjoyment only... He cannot attain Moksha or final emancipation from there. He will have to come down to this earth again for trying for his salvation.
Swami Sivananda (2), 152

Nay, even if a man ignorant of the kingdom of the Self should do virtuous deeds on earth, he would not arrive through them at everlasting life; for the effects of his deeds would finally be exhausted. Wherefore let him know the kingdom of the Self, and that alone.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 81

8:16 The dwellers in the worlds, from the realm of Brahma downward, are subject to rebirth, O Arjuna; but for those who reach Me, O son of Kunti, there is no further return to embodiment.
Bhagavad Gita

The Worlds of Blind Darkness
Into blind darkness enter they who worship ignorance... Those worlds covered with blind darkness are called joyless. To them after death go those people who have not knowledge, who are not awakened.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.8-9

After the death of men who have done bad deeds, another solid body, designed to be tortured, is born out of the five elements. When (the living souls) here have suffered with that body the tortures given by Yama, (the bodies) dissolve, each part distributed into its own basic element.
The Laws of Manu, 12:16-17

The Ruler of Hell is Lord Yama. He is assisted by Chitragupta. Hell is a particular locality which is walled off from the surrounding regions of space by the messengers of Yama. Sinners get a thick body called "Yatana-Deha" when they are punished. The punishment in hell is not remembered by the soul when it is reborn. The punishment in hell is reformatory and educative. The permanent educative effect remains in conscience. The innate fear which some souls feel at the sight of temptation of sin is due to the finer development of conscience in the furnace of hell-fire. This is the permanent gain acquired by the soul. The soul is reborn with keener conscience after being purified by hell-fire. He can make better use of his faculties in the next birth.
Swami Sivananda (2), 126

"Why are we punished?" asked the barrister.
"For our good. To reform us. To remedy the evils we have done," the Great Master replied.
"We do not remember what we did in our past lives and what we are being punished for. What is the effect of a punishment if one does not remember the misdeed?" the barrister inquired.
"The effect of the punishment is so deeply embedded in the antashkaran that it remains forever," the Great Master told him. "In subsequent lives, the soul dreads the act for which it is punished, as one avoids a poisonous snake. That person automatically avoids that act and finds a natural aversion in his heart towards it." 
Great Master, 100

But the Yoga asserts that retribution is in exact proportion to the crimes and the faults committed, and that what we have to do with is the exhaustion of a mental force generated by the human being in his ignorance.
J. Marques Riviere, 109

Length of Time Before Rebirth
People wish to know the exact period that elapses from the time of leaving the body and being born again... Now, there is no definite period of time in this matter. In main two factors decide this issue viz., the nature of the individual Karma and the last impression before death. It may vary from hundreds of years to a few months even. Those that work out some of their Karmas in other planes in subtler regions, take a considerable time before entering a fresh body. The interval is very long, for a year of the earth period passes off as a single day on the celestial plane...
A very sensual individual with strong craving or one with intense attachment sometimes is reborn quickly. Also in cases where life is cut short by a violent death or a sudden unexpected accident, the Jiva resumes the thread very soon.
Swami Sivananda (2), 153-154

Ten years of the earth plane is equal to ten days for the Devas in heaven
Swami Sivananda (2), 198

Q. Theosophy speaks of fifty to 10,000 year intervals between death and rebirth. Why is this so? 
A. There is no relation between the standard of measurements of one state of consciousness and another. All such measurements are hypothetical. It is true that some individuals take more time and some less.
Ramana Maharshi, 197

The Return to Earth Plane
When that passes away from them, they pass forth into this space, from space into air, from air into rain, from rain into the earth. Reaching the earth they become food. Again, they are offered in the fire of man. Thence they are born in the fire of woman with a view to going to other worlds. Thus do they rotate.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VI.2.16

Having dwelt there as long as there is residue (of good works) they return by that course by which they came to space, from space into air; and after having become the air they become the smoke; after having become smoke, they become mist.
After having become mist they become cloud, after having become cloud he rains down. They are born here as rice and barley, herbs and trees, as sesamum plants and beans. From thence the release becomes extremely difficult for whoever eats the food and sows the seed he becomes like unto him.
Those whose conduct here has been good will quickly attain a good birth (literally womb), the birth of a Brahmin, the birth of a Ksatriya, or the birth of a Vaisya. But those whose conduct here has been evil, will quickly attain an evil birth, the birth of a dog, the birth of a hog or the birth of a Candala.
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.10.5-7

The moon, verily, is the door of the world of heaven. Whoever answers it (properly), him it sets free (to go to the higher worlds). But whoever answers it not, him having become rain, it rains down here. Either as a worm, or as an insect or as a fish or as a bird, or as a lion, or as a boar, or as a snake, or as a tiger, or as a person or as some other in this or that condition he is born again according to his deeds, according to his knowledge; when he comes thither, he asks him; who are you? He should answer. From the far-shining, O ye Seasons, the seed was gathered, produced from the fifteenfold from the home of the fathers (the ancestors) sent me in a man as an agent and with a man as an agent, placed me in a mother. So was I born, being born in the twelfth or thirteenth month united to a father of twelve or thirteen months; for the knowledge of this was I, for the knowledge of the opposite of this. Therefore, O ye seasons, bring me on to immortality by this truth, by this austerity I am (like) a season. I am connected with the seasons. Who are you? (the sage asks again) "I am you," he replies. Then he sets him free.
Kausitaki-Brahmana Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.2

Eventually it is brought back to earth with the rain, enters the food chain through absorption by a plant, and finally becomes associated with the seed of a male who has eaten the fruit of that plant. The act of intercourse thus "introduces" this soul into the womb where its new body will grow, and the entire process begins once more. The force of karma operates here in determining which potential father will eat which plant, thus guaranteeing the soul a set of circumstances appropriate to its prior experiences.
Padmanabh S. Jaini, in O'Flaherty, 220-221

...Jaina texts make absolutely no mention whatsoever of how a soul actually enters the body of the mother-to-be. It is said only that the soul moves into a new embryo within a single moment (samaya)after the death of the previous body.
Padmanabh S. Jaini, in O'Flaherty, 221

...the Vaibhasika theory that the transmigratory consciousness (referred to as gandharva) enters the vagina at the moment of intercourse and is thus trapped therein.
Padmanabh S. Jaini, in O'Flaherty, 221-222
Note: "According to them there are four chief Buddhist schools...The Hinayana schools are the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas."

It is said in the Garbha Upanishad that when the fetus in the womb is seven months old, the soul receives knowledge of its past and future. It knows who it has been and will be. When the movie of its lives passes before its mind, it becomes frightened and begins moving restlessly here and there...Now, God has been watching all this, and when at last the soul starts crying out and taking refuge in Him, God bestows His grace upon it. He gives it instruction in so'ham, which means "That am I" and which is the same as the hamsa mantra...However, when nine months are over, the fetus is forcibly ejected from its mother's womb. The moment it comes out, it starts crying...It forgets the awareness of so'ham and cries ko ham, which means "Who am I?"
Swami Muktananda (1), 28-30

The Jiva can travel through space. It need not necessarily have any physical support like raindrops, earth etc. It finds entrance into this physical world through raindrops, that is all. There are seven planes which are interpenetrating one subtler than the other. Heaven is one of them...
Till the seventh month the Jiva remains in an unmanifested state. "The soul enters the foetus in the seventh month" -- this does not mean that it newly enters. It only means that it begins to manifest in the seventh month when the formation of the physical body completes.
Swami Sivananda (2), 196-197

The Fruition of Karma
Karmas can bear fruit in several ways in the astral worlds or in future births, or can be destroyed through the practice of yoga. 
•	Circumstances in Future Births
•	Penance
•	Regression to Lower Forms
•	Effects on Character
•	Assumption by the Guru
•	Destruction by Meditation

Circumstances in Future Births
2:14. Experiences of pleasure and of pain are the results of merit and demerit, respectively.
Patanjali

He who spreads happiness will always get such favorable circumstances as can bring him happiness. He who spreads pain to others will, doubtless, get such unfavorable circumstances, according to the law of Nature as can bring him misery and pain.
Swami Sivananda (1), 83-84

The man is dragged to places where he can get his objects of desire... Suppose there is a poor intelligent boy in India. He has an intense desire to go to England for his I.C.S. examination. His desire to go in this birth cannot be fulfilled. Suppose also that there is a rich lady in England who has no son and has intense desire to get an intelligent one. The poor boy may get his next birth in London as the son of the rich lady according to the law of coincidence. He thus would have his strong desire gratified now. God gives suitable surroundings according to the nature of the desire of the man for his growth and evolution.
Swami Sivananda (1), 84-85

If you develop a carbuncle or get a fracture of the leg or arm, this is obviously due to some bad Karma in your previous birth. The bad Karma was the cause and the carbuncle or fracture is the effect... There is no such thing as a chance or accident.
Swami Sivananda (1), 92-93

If the virtuous man who has not done any evil act in this birth suffers, this is due to some wrong act that he may have committed in his previous birth. He will have his compensation in his next birth. If the wicked man who daily does many evil actions apparently enjoys in this birth, this is due to some good Karma he must have done in his previous birth. he will have compensation in his next birth. He will suffer in the next birth. The law of compensation is inexorable and relentless.
Swami Sivananda (1), 102

"Suppose a man is fond of game shooting and kills one hundred animals in his life," said the Great Master. "This heavy debt can only be cleared by all those animals taking the life of the hunter in their turn. So he will require one hundred lives to adjust this account created by one bad habit only." 
Great Master, 99

Penance
An evil-doer is freed from his evil by declaring (the act), by remorse, by inner heat, by recitation (of the Veda), and, in extremity, by giving gifts.
The Laws of Manu, 11:228

Prayaschitta is done for the destruction of sin. In the Code of Manu you will find various kinds of Prayaschitta for the destruction of various kinds of sins... Prayaschitta is of two kinds, viz., 1. Extraordinary (Asadharana) and 2. Ordinary (Sadharana). Extraordinary penances are those which are prescribed in the Code of Manu for the destruction of particular sins... If anyone repents and openly admits his minor offenses, the sin is washed away. In doing Prayaschitta the offender actually suffers, he punishes himself by long fasting and other ordeals as described above. Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Swami Sivananda (1), 208-209

Regression to Lower Forms
But those who do not know these two ways, become insects, moths and whatever there is here that bites.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), VI.2.16

But on neither of these ways are those small creatures (which are ) continually revolving (those of whom it is said), be born and die. Theirs is a third state. By this (it comes about) that that world becomes full. Therefore let one seek to guard himself. To this end, there is this verse.
He who steals gold, he who drinks wine, he who dishonors the teacher's bed, he who kills a Brahmana, these four do fall as also the fifth who consorts with them.
Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.10.8-9

Some souls enter a womb for embodiment; others enter stationary objects according to their deeds and according to their thoughts.
Katha Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), II.2.8

12:3 The action that arises in the mind-and-heart, speech, and the body bears good and bad fruits; the highest, lowest, and middle level of men's existences come from their actions.
12:9 A man becomes a stationary object as a result of the faults that are the effects of past actions of the body, a bird or wild animal from those of speech, and a member of one of the lowest castes from those of the mind-and-heart.
The Laws of Manu

12:35 When someone who has done, or is doing, or is going to do an act feels ashamed, a learned man should realize that the whole act has the mark of the quality of darkness.
12:36 When someone hopes to achieve great fame in this world by a certain act, but does not feel sorry if it fails, that should be known as (an act with the quality of energy).
12:37 But when he longs with his all to know something and is not ashamed when he does it, and his self is satisfied by it, that (act) has the mark of the quality of lucidity.
12:38 Pleasure is the mark of darkness, profit is said to be the mark of energy, and religion the mark of lucidity, and each is better than the one before it.
12:39 Now I will tell you, in a nutshell and in order, the transmigrations in this whole (universe) that one achieves by each of these qualities:
12:40 People of lucidity become gods, people of energy become humans, and people of darkness always become animals; this is the three-fold level of existence.
The Laws of Manu
[Note: The above version translates sattva as lucidity, rajas as energy, and tamas as darkness.]

12:81 But a man reaps the appropriate fruit of any act in a body that has the qualities of the frame of mind in which he committed that act.
The Laws of Manu

14:14 If the embodied soul meets with death when sattva prevails, it goes to the spotless realms of those who know the Highest.
14:15 If the embodied soul meets with death when rajas prevails, it is born among those who are attached to action; and if it meets with death when tamas prevails, it is born in the wombs of creatures devoid of reason.
Bhagavad Gita

Q. Is it possible for a man to be reborn as a lower animal? 
A. Yes. It is possible, as illustrated by Jada Bharata--the scriptural anecdote of a royal sage having been reborn as deer.
Ramana Maharshi, 196-197

"Remember, Nature is not extravagant. It gives that form to an individual in which he can best satisfy his unfulfilled desires and cravings. If in human form, such desires and cravings are created that befit an animal, the next birth must be degradation to an animal form."
Great Master, 149

Effects on Character
According as one acts, according as one behaves, so does he become. The doer of good becomes good, the doer of evil becomes evil. One becomes virtuous by good action, bad by bad action.
Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad IV.4.6 (Radhakrishnan)

Actions produce Samskaras or impressions or potencies. The impressions coalesce together through repetition and form habits. Tendencies develop into habits and character. The sum-total of the tendencies of a man is his character. Karmas manufacture character and character manufactures will. If the character is pure and strong, the will also will be pure and strong, and vice versa.
Swami Sivananda (1), 108

Assumption by the Guru
"Sir, does the Satguru take upon Himself the sins of all the disciples He initiates?" Rai Ranjit Gopal asked.
"Yes, He takes over the karmic accounts of all Satsangis initiated by Him," the Great Master replied.
"At the time of Initiation?" Rai Sahib asked.
"And later on also," said the Great Master. "This process continues. You have compelled me to disclose something, Rai Sahib, which so far had remained undisclosed. Listen. Initiation by a perfect Master means something more than merely teaching the method of repeating the Holy Names or of hearing the Holy Sound. At the time of the Initiation the Master unties the Dori (the cord or string) of the disciple's soul which binds it to Kal, and attaches it to the Satguru's feet inside. He then continually keeps it moving to higher stages according to how He finds the disciple's love and devotion for the Lord increasing. Kal is seated on the left side of the Kanj Kanwal (the center directly behind the eyes) and Satguru is seated on the right side. At the time of death, uninitiated souls go automatically into the mouth of Kal, as if drawn by a powerful vacuum. If initiation were simply the communication of Five Names, a girl of ten could do that. But saving a soul from the clutches of Kal is something different. Only a Sant Satguru can deliver a soul from Kal." 
Great Master, 217

"Sir, how long does it take a Satsangi to reach Sach Khand?" Rai Sahib asked.
"There is no general rule for that. It depends on one's love, faith and devotion, one's zeal, and the effort one makes," the Great Master replied. "The Lord's grace also plays an important part, and so does one's karma...But one thing is certain. That is, after Initiation there is no going down below the scale of mankind, and it takes no more than four births for an Initiate to reach Sach Khand." 
Great Master, 218

"...People ask you to pray for their cows, horses, pet dogs, cats, and squirrels. Now, what does this signify? They know--at least the Satsangis do--that all pain and disease come as the result of a jiva's past karmas and this debt of karmas must be paid. Kal must have his pound of flesh if not from the jiva concerned than from the Master who takes upon Himself the burden of that jiva." 
Great Master, 137

Our happiness was suddenly marred after a fortnight by the Great Master falling seriously ill--in fact very dangerously ill... The Great Master had initiated a large number of Nepalese and other people from the surrounding hilly tracts, who throughout their lives had been killing goats and other animals for sacrifices and also for eating. Before this also, after initiating people, the Great Master would always be slightly ill. But this time it was much worse than usual, and it made us all very nervous and apprehensive. On the tenth day his condition grew very serious. The doctors lost all hope. This state lasted for three days and even after that we spent many sleepless nights and days. But during all this time the Great Master's joviality and good humor remained the same...Soon after this he recovered very speedily.
Great Master, 130-131

Destruction by Meditation
4:6 Of the various types of mind, only that which is purified by samadhi is freed from all latent impressions of karma and from all cravings.
Patanjali

4:11 Our subconscious tendencies depend upon cause and effect. They have their basis in the mind, and they are stimulated by the sense-objects. If all these are removed, the tendencies are destroyed.
Patanjali

Q. The present experiences are the result of past karma. If we know the mistakes committed before, we can rectify them.
A. If one mistake is rectified there still remains the whole sanchita karma from former births which is going to give you innumerable births. So that is not the procedure. The more you prune a plant, the more vigorously it grows. The more you rectify your karma, the more it accumulates. Find the root of karma and cut it off.
Ramana Maharshi, 219

A. ...In other words, complete effacement of the ego is necessary to conquer destiny, whether you achieve this effacement through self-inquiry or through bhakti marga.
Ramana Maharshi, 223

Q. Can people wipe out the consequences of their bad actions by doing mantras or japa or will they necessarily have to experience them? 
A. If the feeling "I am doing japa" is not there, the bad actions committed by a man will not stick to him. If the feeling "I am doing the japa" is there, the consequences of bad actions will persist.
Q. Does not punya [merit accumulated from virtuous acts] extinguish papa [demerit accumulated from sinful acts]? 
A. So long as the feeling "I am doing" is there, one must experience the results of one's acts, whether they are good or bad. How is it possible to wipe out one act with another? When the feeling that "I am doing" is lost, nothing affects a man. Unless one realizes the Self, the feeling "I am doing" will never vanish.
Ramana Maharshi, 220

Free Will and Destiny
11:32 I am mighty, world-destroying Time, now engaged here in slaying these men. Even without you, all these warriors standing arrayed in the opposing armies shall not live.
11:33 Therefore stand up and win glory; conquer your enemies and enjoy an opulent kingdom. By Me and none other have they already been slain; be an instrument only, O Arjuna.
11:34 Kill Drona and Bhisma and Jayadratha and Karna, and the other great warriors as well, who have already been killed by Me. Be not distressed by fear. Fight, and you shall conquer your foes in the battle.
Bhagavad Gita

18:60 Bound by your own karma, O son of Kunti, which is born of your very nature, what through delusion you seek not to do, you shall do even against your will.
Bhagavad Gita

Those who know that what is to be experienced by them in this life is only what is already destined in their prarabdha will never feel perturbed about what is to be experienced. Know that all one's experiences will be thrust upon one whether one wills them or not.
Ramana Maharshi, 221

Q....can it be that all the details of his life, down to the minutest, have already been determined? Now, for instance, I put this fan that is in my hand down on the floor here. Can it be that it was already decided that on such and such a day, at such and such an hour, I should move the fan like this and put it down here? 
A. Certainly. Whatever this body is to do and whatever experiences it is to pass through was already decided when it came into existence.
Q. What becomes then of man's freedom and responsibility for his actions? 
A. The only freedom man has is to strive for and acquire the jnana which will enable him not to identify himself with the body. The body will go through the actions rendered inevitable by prarabdha and a man is free either to identify himself with the body and be attached to the fruits of its actions, or to be detached from it and be a mere witness of its activities.
Q. So free will is a myth? 
A. Free will holds the field with association to individuality. As long as individuality lasts there is free will. All the scriptures are based on this fact and they advise directing the free will in the right channel.
Ramana Maharshi, 222-223

"Neither is everything predestined, nor do we have free will in everything," said the Great Master. "There was a time when we had free will. We could act as we pleased. We acted, and that act produced a certain result. That "result" became our destiny. We could not escape it. We acted again. This time our free will carried with it the experience of our first act and was qualified and limited to that extent. This act again produced results, and these results again curtailed our original freedom. Now that we have been acting and producing results for millions of ages, these actions and their reactions act upon us as our unavoidable fate. Our body, mind, intellect, and reasoning are fashioned by these and make us choose a certain course. Our previous acts determine our present life, and our present acts go to make our future. We reap now what we have sown in our previous births, and we shall reap in the future what we are sowing now.
"We are at present performing two kinds of actions: (1) new actions, called Kriyaman, and (2) Pralabdh, which are the results of actions done previously. Both actions go on simultaneously. Now you can judge for yourself to what extent we are free, and how far we are bound by our fate. What we call "fate" is nothing but the result or reaction of our own actions previously performed. We have "made" our own destiny, and are now constantly engaged in making it for the future.
Great Master, 209

Karma Yoga
A man acts according to the desires to which he clings. After death he goes to the next world bearing in his mind the subtle impressions of his deeds; and after reaping there the harvest of his deeds, he returns again to this world of action. Thus he who has desires continues subject to rebirth.
But he in whom desire is stilled suffers no rebirth. After death, having attained to the highest, desiring only the Self, he goes to no other world. Realizing Brahman, he becomes Brahman.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 109

3:9 The world becomes bound by action unless it be done for the sake of Sacrifice. Therefore, O son of Kunti, give up attachment and do your work for the sake of the Lord.
4:14 Action does not defile Me; nor do I long for its fruit. He who knows Me thus is not bound by his action.
3:19 Therefore always do without attachment the work you have to do; for a man who does his work without attachment attains the Supreme.
3:30 Surrendering yourself to Me, with mind intent on the Self, freeing yourself from longing and selfishness, fight -- unperturbed by grief.
3:35 Better one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed. Better is death in the doing of one's own dharma: the dharma of another is fraught with peril.
9:27 Whatever you do, whatever you eat, whatever you offer in sacrifice, whatever you give away, and whatever you parties in the form of austerities, O son of Kunti -- do it as an offering to Me.
9:28 Thus you shall be free from the bondage of actions, which bear good or evil results. With your mind firmly set on the yoga of renunciation, you shall become free and come to Me.
Bhagavad Gita

"We perform actions with certain desires. These desires forge chains for our future bondage. So the only way to get released is to perform desireless actions. Do your duties in a detached manner without any thought for the result of your actions. Take everything, your body, mind, possessions, children, etc. as a trust from the Lord, and look upon yourself only as a trustee, as His agent. All responsibility for the acts of the agent are transferred to the principal. The agent is not liable for any loss or profit. Trouble comes only when we try to misappropriate the trust property."
Great Master, 209

Rebirth of Fallen Yogis
6:37 Arjuna said: A man who is endowed with faith, but not with steadfastness, and whose mind has wandered away from yoga -- what end does he gain, O Krishna, having failed to attain perfection in yoga?
6:40 The Lord said: O Partha, there is no destruction for him either in this world or the next: no evil, My son, befalls a man who does good.
6:41 The man who has fallen away from yoga goes to the worlds of the righteous. Having lived there for unnumbered years, he is reborn in the home of the pure and prosperous.
6:42 Or he is born in a family of yogis rich in wisdom. Verily, such a birth is hard to gain in this world.
6:43 There he comes in touch with the knowledge acquired in his former body, O son of the Kurus, and strives still further for perfection.
6:44 By that former practice he is led on in spite of himself. Even he who merely wishes to know of yoga rises superior to the performer of Vedic rites.
6:45 A yogi, striving diligently, is purified of all sins, and, becoming perfect through many births, reaches the Supreme Goal.
Bhagavad Gita

The Realized Being
He who knows the Self is unaffected, whether by good or evil. Never do such thoughts come to him as "I have done an evil thing" or "I have done a good thing." Both good and evil he has transcended, and he is therefore troubled no more by what he may or may not have done.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Prabhavananda), 111

4:7 The karma of the yogi is neither white nor black. The karma of others is of three kinds: white, black, or mixed.
Patanjali

The karma of ordinary people is either black (bad,) white (good), or mixed. But when a man has attained samadhi his acts will cease to produce karmas for him, of any kind (see I,18). Nevertheless, since the illumined yogi continues to act, karmas are being produced, and there may even be some admixture of evil in them. Who gets these karmas? Shankara gives an interesting answer to this question. He says that those who love the illumined yogi will receive the good effects of his karmas, while those who hate him will receive the bad.
Such is not the case, however, with an avatar or divine incarnation. An avatar, such as Krishna, Christ, or Ramakrishna, is an actual incarnation of the Godhead. He enters the phenomenal world by an act of grace and divine free will, not because he is forced to do so by the karmas of previous births. He comes into the world without karmas, and his acts in this world produce none. Therefore, the effects of his karmas cannot be received by others, either for good or for ill.
In Hindu religious literature, there are numerous stories of men who hated God or an avatar...And, in all these instances, these men attained liberation...It is best to love an avatar, but it is better to hate him passionately than to be indifferent to him...Rajas is spiritually higher than Tamas. By way of rajas, we reach sattwa...
Prabhavananda and Isherwood, in Patanjali, p. 145

Q. If I am not the body why am I responsible for the consequences of my good and bad actions? 
A. If you are not the body and do not have the idea "I am the doer," the consequences of your good or bad actions will not affect you. Why do you say about the actions the body performs "I do this" or "I did that"? As long as you identify yourself with the body like that you are affected by the consequences of the actions, that is to say, while you identify with the body you accumulate good and bad karma.
Ramana Maharshi, 219

...Prarabdha karma is of three categories, ichha, anichha and parechha [personally desired, without desire, and due to others' desire]. For the one who has realized the Self, there is no ichha-prarabdha but the two others, anichha and parechha, remain. Whatever a jnani does is for others only. If there are things to be done by him for others, he does them but the results do not affect him. Whatever be the actions that such people do, there is no punya and no papa attached to them. ...So long as one identifies oneself with the body, all this is difficult to understand. That is why it is sometimes said in response to such questions, "The body of the jnani will continue till the force of prarabdha works itself out, and after the prarabdha is exhausted it will drop off." An illustration made use of in this connection is that of an arrow already discharged which will continue to advance and strike its target. But the truth is that the jnani has transcended all karmas, including the prarabdha karma, and he is not bound by the body or its karmas.
Ramana Maharshi, 220-221

When a meditator whose Kundalini is awakened becomes stabilized in the sahasrar, piercing all his chakras, he dies right then -- he dies to the state of bondage. He knows no other death. He continues to live in his physical form only on account of his prarabdha.
Swami Muktananda (3), 156

Projection of the Soul
3:39 When the bonds of the mind caused by karma have been loosened, the yogi can enter into the body of another by knowledge of the operation of its nerve currents.
Patanjali

The yogi can enter a dead body and make it get up and move, even while he himself is working in another body. Or he can enter a living body, and hold that man's mind and organs in check, and for the time being act through the body of that man.
Swami Vivekananda, quoted in commentary to Patanjali, 133

The Night of Brahma
A cycle, or Day of Brahma, a kalpa, the period of the endurance of the solar system, is 12,000 years of the devas, or 4,320,000,000 earth-years. At the beginning of each Day when Brahma wakes, the "Three Worlds" so often spoken of in the myths, together with the devas, rishis, asuras, men, and creatures, are manifested afresh according to their individual deserts (karma, deeds); only those who in the previous kalpa obtained direct release (nirvana, moksha), or who passed beyond the Three Worlds to higher planes, no longer reappear. At the close of each Day the Three Worlds, with all their creatures, are again resolved into chaos (pralaya), retaining only a latent germ of necessity of remanifestation. The Night of Brahma is of equal length with the Day.
The life of our Brahma or Ishvara is one hundred Brahma-years, at the end of which time not only the Three Worlds, but all planes and all beings -- Ishvara himself, devas, rishis, asuras, men, creatures, and matter -- are resolved into chaos (maha-pralaya, "great chaos"), enduring for another hundred Brahma-years, when there appear a new Brahma and a new creation.
Coomaraswamy and Nivedita, 392-393

Collective Karma
The collective Karma of a race or a nation is as much a fact in Nature as an individual one. The same principles underlying the Karmic laws apply, without much wide difference, to national and collective Karma. Nations rise and fall, empires flourish and are dismembered on the same ground. The wise heads in a nation should not neglect the dominating sway of this law.
In the midst of a national calamity it is well to remember that nothing can come to us which we have not deserved. We may not be able to see the immediate cause of the catastrophe, but it does not follow that it took place without sufficient cause.
Dr. M. H. Syed, quoted in Swami Sivananda (1), 89

The Problem of Desires
What Causes a Desire to Be Fulfilled?
In the first place, desires determine our actions; as shown by:
As is his desire, so is his will; as is his will, so is the deed he does, whatever deed he does, that he attains. --Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.5
On another level, desires are themselves a form of actions. There are two components: 
•	Samskaras, which store the form of the desire. 
•	Brahma, or the energy that created the universe, but is also present in each human being. 
Ramana Maharshi compares samskaras to slides in a projector. Brahma would be the light the shines through the slides and causes that image to be actualized in the world.
Why Are Desires Not Fulfilled Immediately?
Rama Tirtha says that desires are fulfilled sooner if they are few and small in number; and that prayers come true if the person is merged in God-consciousness while they pray.
We infer that desires vary in force. Further, they vary in terms of the difficulty of what they ask for. Although infinite Brahma is latent in each of us, the desires of many people are creating the state of the cosmos at any given time. In order to make it possible for all desires to come true, people often have to take turns.

What Aspect of an Action is Returned to You?
The subtle effect of an action (karma) is to reflect the action back to you. But what aspect of the action?
For example, suppose you hire a singer to play at your wedding. Then you pay the singer less than you had agreed to. Are we to infer that, in future, your roles will exactly reverse? (That is, you sing at his wedding and he pays you less than promised.) No, because he has strong desires toward singing, whereas you have strong desires toward listening.
Therefore, possibly, in a future birth, you pay a singer in advance to sing at your wedding, and the singer never shows up. Then you experience the pain of having someone break their agreement to you; this is the pain you caused the singer in the first life.
The karmic principle seems to be that you are repaid by the same amount of pleasure or pain that you caused others with your original action.
Sometimes there is an additional symmetry, in which the circumstances that cause you the pleasure or pain also resemble your original action. But this symmetry does not always apply. For example, a disease might be caused by bad karma, but the original action might have had nothing to do with disease.

Doesn't this Contradict the Law of Desire?
Now we see that the law of actions seems to run contrary to the law of desire. For example, when I steal, it is because I desire to get something for nothing. If in a future life, I am stolen from in turn, this can hardly said to be a fulfillment of my desire.
So how can the law of action and the law of desire coexist? Further, how can these laws be seen as expressions of a single underlying world-order?
Hindu philosophy speaks of the world as manifesting through a creative impulse (Brahma), and being destroyed through a transcendent impulse (Shiva). In between, the existing world is sustained by Vishnu, who is a sort of balancing point between the tendencies of creation and dissolution. After the dissolution, the world is chaos and is again at a balancing point between creation and dissolution; and the governing impulse here is Narayana. Narayana is identified with Vishnu. They are each a point of balance, but experienced at opposite ends of the circle.
In Native American thought this circle becomes the Medicine Wheel, and the four points the four directions or four seasons. In Egyptian thought a similar idea seems to be symbolized by the cycle of the sun through day and night. Khepera, the sun at dawn, is like Brahma; Aten, the sun at noon, is like Vishnu; Atum, the sun at dusk, is like Shiva; and Auf-Ra, the sun hidden by its passage through the underworld at night, is like Narayana.
In Hindu thought, each human is a universe in miniature, so these four tendencies are present in each human being as well; but they are spoken of as three, since Narayana and Vishnu are lumped together. Now, these three tendencies manifest on several levels, from more subtle or spiritual levels, down to gross physical levels.
At the level of mental faculties, these principles are spoken of as iccha (desire or will), jnana (knowledge) and kriya (action). These are evolutes of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva respectively.
At the level of mental and emotional tendencies, these principles are spoken of as the gunas, which are rajas (passion), sattva (purity), and tamas (darkness).
So if you think about it, a desire involves the faculty of iccha and the guna of rajas. Both are evolutes of Brahma, the creative impulse. From this you can naturally derive the law of desire, that is, the nature of desires to become fulfilled.
The situation with actions is more complex. All action requires the faculty of action, kriya, which is an evolute of Shiva. In an ordinary person, this kriya is prompted by iccha, volition. Depending on the type of volition, the action has the character of rajas, sattva, or tamas. It seems that 
•	Iccha + sattva + kriya = action that creates "good" karma. 
•	Iccha + rajas + kriya = action that creates "mixed" karma. 
•	Iccha + tamas + kriya = action that creates "bad" karma. 
Beyond these three is the mysterious type of action that the Bhagavad Gita refers to as "action without attachment" and the Taoist tradition refers to as "non-doing." This would seem to be a type of action in which the kriya faculty is present, but iccha is either missing or somehow purified so as to lack its normal effect. This is the type of action that produces no karma at all.
To return to the original question: why do actions have this boomerang effect of coming back to hit you in the face? We can infer that the "creative" effects of iccha are being modified by the "destructive" aspects of kriya (an evolute of Shiva the destroyer). The combination apparently creates a samskara that is in some sense an inverted image of your action: an image of it being done to you instead of to someone else.
So our hypothesis is that the iccha faculty (desire/volition) creates those things called samskaras, which we carry with us from birth to birth. In the case of actions, the samskaras are created in an "inverted" form due to the influence of kriya. All desires tend to manifest/actualize themselves eventually, due to the power of our own inner Brahma shining through them.

Whose Samskaras?
Both Ramana Maharshi and Swami Muktananda refer to prarabdha karma (that karma that reaches fruition in our current life) as being of three types: iccha (desired), aniccha (undesired), and pariccha (desired by others). Unfortunately, I haven't found the scriptural source for this doctrine, but we'll take it as a given.
If you relate these categories to samskaras, my guess would be that 
•	Iccha karma corresponds to your own samskaras from your own unfulfilled desires 
•	Aniccha karma corresponds to your own "inverted" samskaras that resulted from your own actions 
•	Pariccha karma corresponds to the samskaras of other people 
This list raises the interesting question: In actions involving two or more people, is the later repayment caused by the samskaras of the person who committed the original action, by those of the person who received the action, or by neither? The following examples explore this question.
Example 1: Action Returned by the Recipient
Suppose I get angry and hit Ralph on the nose. Suppose that Ralph is a vengeful person, but for some reason he isn't able to hit me back right away; perhaps I knocked him out, and I'm gone when he wakes up. In this case, I have a samskara that requires punishment for having hit him; he has a samskara from his desire to hit me back. So in a future life, we probably meet up again, and he finds some pretext to hit me on the nose. This aspect of my prarabdha would seemingly be classified as both aniccha and pariccha. This is probably okay as neither Ramana nor Muktananda said that the categories were mutually exclusive.
Example 2: Action Not Returned by the Recipient
Suppose I didn't hit Ralph. Instead, I hit some sincere pacifist on the nose. Call him Gandhi. Now, Gandhi might be angry at me, but he's committed to nonviolence. No matter how many times I'm born, he's not going to hit me back. In this case, something different must happen. In this case, I might simply slip up sometime and hit myself in the nose with a hammer. This might be considered an instance of aniccha (undesired) prarabdha.
Example 3: Actions Committed Against an Unknowing Recipient
Suppose that I kill Ralph by sneaking up and shooting him in the back. He never saw me. In this case, no matter how vengeful Ralph might normally be, he simply doesn't know who killed him.
The question is whether this example most resembles Example 1 or Example 2. If you suppose the Ralph's knowledge is limited, then the situation is like Example 2, where Ralph would never be inclined to return the action to me. But if you suppose that something in Ralph's subconscious is omniscient, this subconscious mechanism could form a samskara that would affect his behavior toward me in future lives. In this case the recompense is more like Example 1.
Example 4: Actions Returned by Other Than the Recipient
Suppose I hit Gandhi on the nose as in Example 2. We have already considered the possibility that this karma might express itself as accidental self-injury. Another possibility is that someone other than Gandhi might return the action.
Can an action be returned by someone other than the original recipient? There are some contrary indications in the sources we have consulted. Thus, the Great Master seems to imply that the action must be repaid by its original recipient:
"Suppose a man is fond of game shooting and kills one hundred animals in his life," said the Great Master. "This heavy debt can only be cleared by all those animals taking the life of the hunter in their turn. So he will require one hundred lives to adjust this account created by one bad habit only."
--Great Master, 99
On the other hand, Swami Sivananda speaks of a Law of Coincidence:
Suppose there is a poor intelligent boy in India. He has an intense desire to go to England for his I.C.S. examination... Suppose also that there is a rich lady in England who has no son and has intense desire to get an intelligent one. The poor boy may get his next birth in London as the son of the rich lady according to the law of coincidence.
--Swami Sivananda (1), 84-85
Is it possible to reconcile these points of view? The following factors might bear on this issue: 
•	The Great Master's example is of the repayment of an action, while Sivananda's example is of the fulfillment of a desire. 
•	The Great Master might have been simplifying to make a point. 
•	The Great Master was of the Sikh tradition, while Sivananda was Hindu. 
From a philosophic standpoint, Sivananda's view is preferable because it allows for more flexibility, and makes it easier to believe that some combination can always be found that will fulfill one's karma. If you take the Great Master literally, you cannot explain how the assailant of Gandhi will ever get repaid. You also cannot explain how a person's actions can be repaid if their recipient has since become enlightened and left this world permanently.
Example 5: Actions Completely Due to Others' Karma
Can we be affected by pariccha karma that has no corresponding iccha or aniccha karma on our side?
For example, imagine a beautiful actress named Roxanne. Some crazy fan fancies himself in love with Roxanne and decides to kidnap her. Can this happen because of the fan's karma alone, or must Roxanne have some past karma that contributes to her situation?
If you admit that someone else's desires can affect you in ways that you haven't earned by your own karma, then the system allows whimsical and undeserved punishments. But the doctrine of karma, above all else, claims to show that the circumstances of our lives are fair because suffering is always a punishment for past misdeeds. Therefore, we must deny that pariccha can operate upon us unless it matches our own iccha or aniccha karma.
In this example, we have to suppose that Roxanne's plight results from her own karma, whereas the kidnapper's actions arise from his own karma. How these two happen to coincide is discussed next in "The Problem of Complexity."

The Problem of Complexity
The problem of complexity is the logistical problem involved in coordinating the lives of billions of people so that each will have the opportunity to repay karmic debts. What determines the order in which these effects are experienced? How does it happen that the people relevant to my karma should always happen to be around when I need to undergo the fruits of some karma?
Ramana Maharshi credits God with personally picking and choosing the karmas that will bear fruit it each person's life:
Q. Who is the projectionist? What is the mechanism that selects a small portion of the sanchita karma and then decides that it shall be experienced as prarabdha karma? 
A. Individuals have to suffer their karma but Iswara manages to make the best of their karmas for his purpose. God manipulates the fruits of karma but he does not add or take away from it. The subconscious of man is a warehouse of good and bad karma. Iswara chooses from this warehouse what he sees will best suit the spiritual evolution at the time of each man, whether pleasant or painful. Thus there is nothing arbitrary.
--Ramana Maharshi, 218-219
Sri Sankaracarya apparently has a more mechanistic conception of the process, as described below:
Which karmic residues work themselves out sooner? And which ones constitute the prarabdhakarman for a given lifetime as opposed to others which are sancita -- stored up for later fruition? Sankara seems to think that in general the more intense and proximate residues, whether sinful or meritorious, tend to mature first, but that the general rule here is subject to many exceptions because there are incompatibilities among several residues which have equal claim but only one of which can mature at a time.
--Karl H. Potter, in O'Flaherty, 258
I haven't located all the statements by Sankaracarya that Potter is apparently summarizing above. However, the following statements, made in passing during a discussion of the fruition of karmas in heaven and hell, do seem consistent with Potter's description:
...If the dormant karma cannot function before death, it being obstructed by the active karma, then since on the same ground the conflicting results of diverse works cannot fructify simultaneously at the time of death, the weaker karma cannot reasonably become active then, it being obstructed by the stronger one...
Smrti also shows that a karma can remain dormant for a long time when it is obstructed by some other karma having a contrary result; for instance, there are texts of the following class: "Sometimes it so happens that for a man sunk in this world, a virtuous work remains dormant here till he becomes free from sorrow (through suffering)."
--Sri Sankaracarya, Brahma-Sutra-Bhasya, III.i.8
So, while Ramana describes the process of selection as one performed by a caring God for our benefit, Sankaracarya refers to competition among the karmas themselves. The two viewpoints can be harmonized by supposing that the most intense karmas are, by their very nature, the ones that we would benefit most from experiencing first. And anything that happens is ultimately attributable to Ishwara, regardless of in what way or at what level the will of Ishwara is expressed.
The intensity of a karma is probably the same as the intensity of the original desire; the desire we had to possess something, or the desire we had that caused us to commit some particular action.
We can imagine a simple mechanism for sorting and reconciling the effects of all these karmas in a distributed way. Each person (jiva) is a storage house of samskaras and the creative energy shining through those samskaras, which causes them to manifest.
Now we want to use the metaphor of a web. From each jiva in the web, a strand of attractive force could be said to emanate outward through each of that jiva's samskaras. Each strand connects that jiva to the other jivas involved in a particular karma. The attractive force of each strand is proportional to the intensity of the desire that created the samskara.
At any given time, each jiva is being pulled upon by all the strands that connect it to other jivas. These can be visualized as vectors of force pulling in various directions. Physicists have mathematical methods for calculating the effect when various vectors are added together. A similar rationale could, in principle, be used to calculate the direction the jiva will move.
This direction manifests itself as a subconscious desire on the part of the jiva. Suppose that all the people I have intense karma with are currently living in New York state, but I live in California. A subconscious impetus ensues that causes me to imagine various reasons why it might be desirable to move to New York; all the time, I am unaware of the real karmic motivations that underlie my behavior.
The metaphor of the karmic web is an example of a self-organizing system. Without outside interference, it will tend to bring together the people who need to work out intense karmas. It also conforms with Sankara's statement that no single karma, no matter how intense, is guaranteed to manifest first. This follows because one's life is determined by the combined effect of all the strands of the web.
The karmic web is an example of the way the doctrine of karma can be extended, or interpreted, so as to manifest those qualities of simplicity and beauty that are considered harbingers of truth in scientific theory.

The Problem of Residual Karma
Suppose I steal 50 dollars from Donna. Now, perhaps Donna has only a mild desire for revenge and steals only 30 dollars from me. In this case, is there a residual left over from the original samskara? What happens to that residual? Does the samskara negotiate with someone else who will steal an additional 20 dollars from me? What if there's no one around who wants to steal that exact amount?
Even if Donna stole exactly 50 dollars back from me, it is hardly possible that the money will have the exact same significance in my life that it did in hers when I first stole it from her. The whole context of my life is different. I might have used that money to buy a book, but she might have used the same money to buy a dress.
Because of such problems, I would like to propose that individual karmas are rarely completely repaid by individual responses. Instead, patterns of similar karmas tend to form a composite force that attracts appropriate types of responses to you. Thus a habitual thief earns a series of punishments appropriate to thievery. For convenience, we'll refer to this tendency as the Law of Blending.
Only in the case of extremely intense karmas could we reasonably expect a single climactic event that repays all at one shot.

The Problem of Conflicting Desires
Take the case of unrequited love. Perhaps 1 million men in the world have a serious crush on supermodel Claudia Schiffer. If all desires must be fulfilled, does it follow that Claudia must take a million more births so as to marry these men one by one? If not, then how are the desires of her fans to be fulfilled?
Even supposing that Claudia takes another million births to fulfill her fans' desires, how likely is it that she will look the same in each birth? Claudia in her next birth may be a brunette. Thus she will no longer resemble the woman that her fans desired. Even if she marries them, their desires are not precisely fulfilled.
Even in everyday life, how often does the person you desire turn out to be quite different than you expected, when you get to know them better? But you desired them based on your image of what you thought they were like. How, then, can your desires be fulfilled?
I suppose the answer would lie in the following factors: 
•	Sivananda's idea of the Law of Coincidence would allow you to eventually marry a woman who happens to look much like Claudia did in this life. But this marriage cannot occur until, by chance, some woman happens to evolve into having that appearance, and also happens to evolve a desire to marry someone who looks pretty much like you. 
•	The concept previously introduced of the Law of Blending would tend to lead you to marry a series of women, each of whom happened to embody one or more of the qualities that you have come to desire over a period of many births. 

The Problem of Failed and Accidental Actions
Now consider cases where the intent behind an action does not match the results of an action. Bear in mind that the desire behind an action must be crucial in shaping karma, since those who act without desire are said to accrue no karma.
We can handle these situations by supposing that there are different levels of karma: physical karma and mental karma, if you will. Consider the following examples: 
Failed Actions 
I'm hopping mad at my boss and I decide to shoot him. I fire the gun with this intent clearly in mind, but I miss. 
The repayment in this case would take some form that would cause me the mental suffering that a murderer deserves, but not the physical pain. Perhaps I am unjustly convicted of murder in a future life, and sentenced to life imprisonment. 
Blameless Accidents 
I'm driving a car when an oncoming car drifts into my lane. I swerve to avoid that car and drive onto the road shoulder, killing a pedestrian. I was using reasonable caution at the time, but circumstances conspired against me. 
The repayment in this case would damage my body without having much affect on my mind. Perhaps I am hit by a car and die instantly at a ripe old age. 
Negligent Accidents 
I'm driving faster than I should on a rainy night. I don't notice someone on the crosswalk until it is too late, and I accidentally hit them. 
The repayment(s) in this case must punish you not only for the night you crashed, but for all the other times you were negligent but didn't happen to hit anyone. Thus it might not be unreasonable for you also to be hit and seriously injured by a negligent driver; though no one negligent action was wicked enough to deserve this, the combination of them all might be sufficient. 

The Problem of Astral Vs. Physical Fruition
If we receive repayment for our deeds in our future earthly births, then why is it necessary that we also receive reward and punishment in the heavens and hells? How is it decided which karmas will be repaid in the earth plane, and which in the various astral planes? On this subject, Sivananda says:
There is double retribution or reward for man's virtuous actions. He gets after his sojourn in Heaven, and return to the earth, a good birth with good surroundings, environments and opportunities for his good actions and inner evolution.
--Swami Sivananda (2), 204
Every wrong action causes punishment first in the inner nature or soul and externally in circumstances in the form of pain, misery, loss, failure, misfortune, disease, etc.
--Swami Sivananda (2), 104
On the other hand, the Upanisads seem to imply that all karmas are exhausted in the heavens or hells before rebirth takes place. Following is an example:
Exhausting the results of whatever works he did in this world he comes again from that world, to this world for (fresh) work.
--Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), IV.4.6
Sri Sankaracarya examines this issue at some length in Brahma-Sutra-Bhasya, III.i.8. He concludes that not all karmas are exhausted in the heavens or hells; rather, we return to this world with residual karmas:
Therefore by residual karmas are meant those other effects in this world and which will still stand over after experiencing the results that were to fructify there (in heaven); with these former the souls descend.
However, Sankaracarya does not explain in this passage what causes some merits to fructify in heaven, while others bear fruit in the next earthly birth.
There is some indication that the system of heavens and hells is to restore a balance of good and bad karma that makes it possible to be born again on the earth plane:
Some say that if one's merits and demerits are equal, they are directly reborn here. Merits outweighing demerits, the subtle bodies go to heaven and are then reborn there; demerits outweighing merits, they go to hells and are afterwards reborn here.
--Ramana Maharshi, 198

The Problems of Birth and Death
To a modern Westerner, the descriptions of the way the soul leaves the body and passes to heaven, and the way the soul returns to earth and is reborn again, are perhaps the least plausible-sounding elements of the theory of karma.
The Upanisads offer a number of varying and rather obscure descriptions of the path after death. See The Path of the Gods and The Path of the Fathers. Sankaracarya has to devote some considerable effort to harmonizing these accounts in Brahma-Sutra-Bhasya IV.iii.
One feature the descriptions have in common is that one passes physically upward to the moon or sun in order to reach the various heavens. The followers of the Path of the Fathers are said to remain on the moon, performing sacrifices to the gods until their good karma is exhausted.
Today, human beings have flown to the moon in the Apollo missions. We don't have the same viewpoint of celestial bodies that the ancients had. We have discovered these celestial bodies to be physical places that we can visit, and where the same physical laws seem to apply as do here.
The polite thing to do at this point is to suppose that the Upanisadic accounts are metaphorical, or perhaps that they describe the subjective aspects of the after-death experience rather than a literal path through the sky.
Even more embarrassing is the description of how we take rebirth, as in the following account:
Having dwelt there as long as there is residue (of good works) they return by that course by which they came to space, from space into air; and after having become the air they become the smoke; after having become smoke, they become mist.
After having become mist they become cloud, after having become cloud he rains down. They are born here as rice and barley, herbs and trees, as sesamum plants and beans. From thence the release becomes extremely difficult for whoever eats the food and sows the seed he becomes like unto him.
--Chandogya Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), V.10.5-7
Once again the heaven of the afterlife seems to be envisioned as physically above us. Worse than this, before the soul can regain human birth, it has to become a sort of excess baggage captured in plants that already have souls of their own.
Then it is postulated that the soul is eaten by a man, digested, and enters into his semen, later to be sown into the womb of a woman. We know today that the woman plays an equal--indeed, a greater part in the genesis of new life, since the egg is much larger than the sperm and is the source of all the mitochondria inherited by the child. Further, we know that semen contains not one life, but many, many spermatozoa.
It is not so much that modern biology contradicts the Upanisadic account. The problem is that there is a displeasing lack of symmetry between the two, and the differences seem suspiciously like they might have resulted from a knowledge of biology inferior to our own.
The modern devotee would find it most natural to suppose that the soul enters this physical plane at the moment of conception, entering immediately into the newly fertilized egg. Equally, one would find it natural that after death, the soul pass directly beyond this physical universe, without side trips to the moon or sun. But such is apparently not the viewpoint of the Hindu scriptures.

The Problem of Physical Vs. Psychic Causation
Suppose Basil is walking down the street one day and passes next to a skyscraper that is under construction. It so happens that a steel girder falls on Basil and kills him instantly. Why did this happen?
A believer in karma and rebirth might explain that the event was due to Basil's karma from a previous birth. For example, perhaps in a past birth Basil killed someone by dropping something heavy on them.
A student of the physical sciences might explain that the girder fell because the cable holding it to the crane was frayed. Why was the cable frayed? Because the owner of the crane was an alcoholic who was neglecting the proper maintenance. Why was the owner alcoholic? Because he had a genetic predisposition and his father beat him as a child. Why did he receive this gene and why did his father beat him? The questions obviously go on and on, in an indefinite regress.
But the key point is this: no matter how far you pursue the chain of physical causation, you will find no simple explanation of why this particular man happened to be where this particular girder fell on this particular day. Because the elements of physical causation in such a case are too complex to trace, and even if traced would have no great interest or usefulness, we commonly refer to the event as a "coincidence."
Now, when we call something a coincidence, we do not mean that it happened without causation, nor do we mean that known physical laws cannot, in principle, give a complete account of the factors that led up to the event. But the account would be lacking any moral component. That is to say, current physical science contains nothing to support the conclusion that the man was killed because he morally deserved it.
How does the karmic law of cause and effect interact with ordinary physical laws of cause and effect? 
Physical Anomalies
Are we to suppose, for example, that Basil's karma caused the cable to fray and break sooner than it otherwise would have? In this case, a scientist observing the cable minutely would see an anomalous acceleration in the fraying process; one that could not be explained by known physical laws.
If fact, considering the omnipresent role of karma in human life, human beings would be everywhere surrounded by disruptions of normal physical causality.
If this is true, then why have not these disruptions been noticed? Following are some possibilities: 
Complexity 
Although physical science has made great strides in the last few centuries, our ability to understand and predict the behavior of nonlinear complex systems is still quite limited. The new studies of "chaos" and the "sciences of complexity" are still in their infancy. Further, the vast number of particles involved in everyday interactions between human beings is too vast to be observed or calculated in detail. Therefore, we could be surrounded by minute deviations from physical law, without ever happening to notice them; or if we did notice them, would find them difficult to reproduce, and would dismiss them as bad data. 
Quantum indeterminacy 
Those who subscribe to the "Copenhagen interpretation" of quantum physics, believe that the behaviors of subatomic particles are governed partly by chance. For a certain particle interaction, there may be several possible outcomes and the scientist cannot predict which one will occur. To the sincere Copenhagenist, this is indeterminacy is not due to any limitation of science; rather, it reflects a fundamental indeterminacy in the universe itself. In recent years, it has become quite popular to justify any and all theories of mystical or paranormal phenomena by positing that they arise from "mysterious quantum effects." Therefore, a certain segment of the population can be counted on to assert that karma is the hidden, determining factor in these subatomic interactions, and through that method influences our physical universe without breaking any known physical law. (The pros and cons of the Copenhagen interpretation, and the scope of its legitimate application, make for quite a complex discussion which will not be attempted here.) 
Psychological Anomalies
Another alternative is to suppose that karma is fulfilled entirely through the subconscious motivations of individual people. For example, we can postulate that the girder was going to fall that day for good physical reasons, regardless of whether or not Basil was standing beneath it. Some aspect of Basil's psyche drove him to organize his day so that he would be walking underneath the girder at the exact moment it fell
Note that this theory depends on some notable peculiarities of Basil's subconscious, which we'll call Sub-Basil: 
•	Sub-Basil is omniscient or highly psychic. It has knowledge of things that cannot have been gained through ordinary sensory input. 
•	Sub-Basil does not directly share its knowledge with Basil, even when his health and happiness are greatly at stake. 
•	Sub-Basil forces Basil to do things for reasons different than the reasons Basil thinks he is doing them. Basil thought he was just taking a shortcut to the office. Sub-Basil planted this suggestion insidiously to hide the real reason for the trip, which was to lead Basil to his death. 
•	Sub-Basil is interested in administering justice to Basil, regardless of whether the process is pleasant to Basil himself. 
Psycho-Physical Anomalies
In many ways, the characteristics of Sub-Basil are not that different from the way many modern psychologists describe the subconscious. In fact, it is probably my modern background that makes me interpret the theory of karma in these terms.
However, one sticking point for the modern psychologist is the claim of psychic omniscience for Sub-Basil. The question of where such an omniscient faculty resides in the human brain, or if external, how it communicates its information to the human brain, remains unanswered. This is allowable in part because the details of brain function are far from understood at this time anyway.

The Problem of Non-Profit
Suppose that Karen knows that her friend Cindy is short of money. Cindy is just starting a long trip across country, and Karen is concerned that Cindy might not complete her journey safely without some money for emergencies. So, out of the goodness of her heart, Karen gives Cindy $100.
Now, what is the karmic recompense for this action? Well, perhaps in a future life, Cindy will give Karen $100 (or whatever the closest equivalent is after inflation).
Yet if you think about it, if Karen had kept that money, she could have invested it in a 401K plan for her retirement. Thirty years later, the money would have grown faster than inflation and Karen's benefit from saving it would be greater than the amount of money she originally put away.
Can we conclude, therefore, that investing money in 401K plans pays better than helping out friends in need? This would be a startling conclusion. The system of karma is, after all, supposed to generally reward good deeds. Yet if you think about it in a general way, and all our actions receive a reward comparable to the original action, then how do we ever come out ahead? Couldn't we do just as well, or better, by being selfish?
One possible response to this dilemma is to point out that a good action is not necessarily as great a sacrifice to the giver as it is a benefit to the receiver. In the example above, because Cindy was short of money, the $100 made a much greater difference to her than it did to Karen. In fact, by helping her cross the country, it enabled her to start a new job with many new opportunities.
This disproportion between the loss to the giver and the benefit to the receiver could be referred to as the Law of Leverage, or even better as the law of Lakshmi. When the gods churned the ocean of milk, first the goddess Alakshmi (poverty) sprang forth. But when they churned more, Lakshmi (wealth) was born. A way of interpreting this myth is to say that the same ingredients can bring forth wealth or poverty; it is by combining them properly, in ways that take advantage of leverage, that wealth is created.
I once knew a spiritual teacher who said, "I have devotees in Chicago who have a printing press, but they don't know how to use it. And I have devotees in Los Angeles who know how to use a printing press, but they can't afford to buy one. This is how my energy is." It was a lament. In this instance, the principle of Alakshmi was at work rather than that of Lakshmi.
So what Karen's karma earned her was not just any $100. It earned her a friend in need who will appear to help her out just when she needs the help the most. From that point of view, the money was a very good investment indeed.

The Problem of Prarabdha
Swami Muktananda makes the following interesting observation about prarabdha karma:
Kabir says in this connection that on the sixth day after the birth of a child, when a special rite is performed, God Himself comes down and decides the destiny of the child, and that cannot be altered. So the allotted span of your life can neither be increased nor decreased. Tulsidas also says that whatever had to be allotted has already been allotted. Therefore, you should life free from anxiety.
Swami Muktananda (4), 17
The oddity of this doctrine becomes apparent when you think about the fact that almost all your own personal karma has an effect on other people. If you live to an average lifespan, then about half the people you interact with in the course of your life are older than you, and half of them are younger than you. All the older people had their karma fixed before you were born. This includes the karma involving all their interactions with you! So by the time you are born, at least half your prarabdha has already been fixed. In that case, what does it mean to say that your prarabdha karma is selected on the sixth day after your birth?
One way out of this conundrum is to suppose that the prarabdha fixed on the sixth day is your interactions with all those who you are to meet in your life, but who haven't been born yet. However, even this solution is somewhat awkward. Many of those people who haven't been born yet will also interact with people who were born before you; and all such interactions were already determined before your birth. These prior engagements must severely limit these people's abilities to fulfill newly arranged karmic appointments with you.
The problem of complexity seems to work out more smoothly if you suppose that the "karmic web" is evolving constantly. To pick out one moment, such the sixth day after birth, as special seems to violate the symmetry of the system.
However, you can perhaps salvage some semblance of order by supposing that the web operates most strongly between people who are in the same loka, and who thus are in some sense closer to each other than are people in different lokas. The ceremony on the sixth day after birth might have the effect of temporarily magnifying the strength of those karmic strands between you and those who are in other lokas, in a way that determines whether those people will take birth in your current lifetime or not.

The Problem of Spiritual Evolution
How do the Law of Action and the Law of Desire tend to promote our spiritual evolution? Patanjali says the following:
4:3. Good or bad deeds are not the direct causes of the transformation. They only act as breakers of the obstacles to natural evolution; just as a farmer breaks down the obstacles in a water course, so that water flows through by its own nature.
--Patanjali
The flowing pathway most associated with spiritual evolution is the path of the kundalini shakti through the sushumna to the sahasrar. So based on Patanjali, we would suppose that the sushumna is blocked by obstacles, and the operation of the karmic laws tends to help the shakti to break through those obstacles.
Punishment is said to promote spiritual evolution by discouraging us from repeating bad actions. Pleasant experiences are said to reward us for performing good actions. But good actions are not an end in themselves. Do they also promote our enlightenment?
Yes, because it is often said of a spiritual aspirant, that if he makes unusually fast progress it is because of his good karma from former births.
Yet good karmas are also spoken of as being a type of bondage. Someone rewarded by wealth for his past good conduct may become too attached to that wealth to be interested in spiritual things.
Following are some speculative reasons why good karmas might tend to promote our progress toward enlightenment:
Doing good requires us to consider the feelings of other people rather than merely our own. This constant shift of perspective might tend to make us more detached from our own desires. It might nurture the awareness that the consciousness in you is equally present in others.
The fruits that we receive from such karmas give us pleasant experiences. And pleasure in itself might promote enlightenment, because the sensation of pleasure is simply a momentary glimpse of the Self.
However, it could be objected to the latter point that the Katha Upanisad draws a clear distinction between the pleasant and the good:
I.2.I (Yama said): Different is the good, and different, indeed, is the pleasant. These two, with different purposes, bind a man. Of these two, it is well for him who takes hold of the good; but he who chooses the pleasant, fails of his aim.
I.2.6 What lies beyond shines not to the simple-minded, careless, (who is) deluded by the glamour of wealth. Thinking "this world exists, there is no other," he falls again and again into my power.
Katha Upanisad (Radhakrishnan)
Therefore, the question of whether pleasure itself promotes spiritual advancement is an obscure one to me.
If pleasure does not promote spirituality, then how can the Law of Desire be construed as beneficial to the aspirant? You would certainly expect the fulfillment of desires to bring pleasure, and the Law of Desire guarantees us that all desires will be fulfilled (eventually). Yet writers on karma often warn us that the fulfillment of desires simply creates an addiction that leads to more and more desires.
Thus, the means by which the Law of Action and the Law of Desire promote spiritual progress is not at all obvious. For now, I must class it as an unsolved problem.

The Problem of Changing Population
If we are each reincarnations of people who lived before, how is it possible that the human population is able to grow, much less to grow exponentially as it has in this century? Where are all these extra souls coming from? Sivananda says:
It is not necessary that the same persons are reborn, and none else. In the process of evolution into the human life many from lower births also come up to the human level. All these are controlled by superhuman powers or by the Divinity, God or Isvara Himself. Further rebirth need not necessarily be on this earth plane alone. It can take place anywhere in the Universe.
--Swami Sivananda (2), 201
Similarly, Swami Muktananda says:
There are many more worlds than the world we know. There is the world of the moon and the world of the sun. There is heaen and hell, and the worlds of Indra and Varuna. Individual souls keep passing through these worlds... When bodies die here and their souls pass from here to other worlds, the population here goes down; when more souls take birth here, the population goes up.
--Swami Muktananda (5), 117
This is actually a straightforward and workable explanation. The number of animals greatly exceeds the number of human beings on Earth. The evolution of animals into humans could therefore account for a much greater population growth than we have encountered so far.
Further, an uncounted number of souls are believed to reside at present in the various heavens and hells. The human population of Earth could rise significantly during periods when a greater-than-average number of such souls are returning to birth in this world.

The Problem of Identity
Another objection sometimes raised against reincarnation is that the concept of personal identity is completely bound up with our physical body. According to this point of view, the "reincarnated" self could no longer be referred to as the same person, because it is in a new and different body.
Interestingly, this is the same viewpoint adopted by some adherents of reincarnation. Buddhists, and to some extent Hindus who follow the Vedantic philosophy, deny that there is a continuous individual "self" that passes from one body to the next. According to this view, that which is the Self exists equally in all beings and has no individuality. That which reincarnates is simply a bundle of "stuff," karmic patterns that become the cause of a new and separate birth.
However, if you adopt this viewpoint, an interesting effect follows. The system of karma then no longer rewards or punishes the original doer of an action. Instead, the doer's karmas are inherited by a new being who has done nothing to deserve them! From this point of view, the system of karma gives us no incentive to perform good deeds.
But it gets weirder. Because from the true Buddhist or Vedantic point of view, the individual self is an illusion anyway. So both the doer of the action and the person who inherits the karma later are equally fictitious.
The more you think about it, the more evident it becomes that these systems of philosophy are speaking of reality from a transcendent point of view, and from that point of view, the whole system of karma is also an illusion so there's no point talking about it anyway.
Therefore, let us return to a more ordinary view of reality. Supposing that individuals exist: can a person be reborn in another body and still be the same person?
Now, when I say that Jake is the same person I knew when I was in high school twenty years ago, I don't mean that he is exactly the same. In fact, he's likely to have changed quite a lot. But we call him by the same name for various reasons: 
•	His physical location has changed in a gradual and continuous way, so that in the fourth dimension, Jake is connected to his former self like the various portions of a long snake. 
•	Certain patterns of his physical body change little, if at all: DNA, fingerprints, heat scans. 
•	He remembers much of his former experiences; and those experiences that he does not remember, still continue to shape his character on a subconscious level. 
•	In general, although Jake changes, the changes of all kinds tend to be gradual and continuous on the whole. 
Now, how do these factors apply when Jake takes rebirth in a new body? 
•	Jake's location does change in a continuous way, since it is believed that Jake's subtle body passes from one physical body to the next. The comparison is to taking off one suit of clothes and putting on a different suit. 
•	However, the change in his location is in some sense not just a physical change, since the subtle body leaves our physical universe and dwells in various heavens or hells before returning for rebirth. Further, the subtle body is invisible to most people, though sages are quite explicit in saying that they have seen this body psychically. 
•	Jake's physical body, on the other hand, does change very much at rebirth. It is said that you can be reborn as a member of the opposite sex, or even as an animal. 
•	Jake has no conscious memory of former births, yet the subconscious memories are said to shape his character. Further, it is said that during advanced meditation, a person regains his or her memories of previous lives. 
•	The changes in Jake are gradual and continuous. However, they may not seem so to others who did not witness his passage through heavens and hells between Earthly births. 
Thus, if you believe that individuals exist, and that we have a subtle body that passes from one physical body to another, it seems reasonable to speak of the reborn person as being a continuation of the same individual. But you can choose not to speak that way if you wish. To pursue the argument further at this point would be to descend to a mere quibble over words.

The Mind-Body Problem
The theory of karma and rebirth would seem to hold that the unique qualities of our mental character (talents, likes and dislikes, emotional tendencies, etc.) carry over from one birth to the next. This is possible because these tendencies reside in the subtle body (linga sharira) or one of the still subtler levels contained within it.
This is a difficult conclusion to understand in light of our modern knowledge of the brain. Now, we certainly don't understand how the brain works in detail. However, we do know how to mess the brain up in a great variety of different ways. Accidents, drugs, surgery, shock treatments, strokes and tumors do a very efficient job of disorganizing various aspects of the brain.
The really interesting fact is that none of those qualities that comprise our mental character is immune from such accidents. We can lose our memory, our talents, the normal emotional tone of our personality, and our likes and dislikes because of various cerebral accidents and injuries. And of course, we can lose all our faculties as well, such as the ability to reason, to form speech, to control our bodies, etc.
Now, if the subtle body is sufficient to support the existence of a mental life, including all our faculties and all the unique qualities of our mental character, then why is the brain also necessary, and why cannot these mental qualities continue when the brain is damaged?
One answer I can think of is that, once the subtle body enters a physical body, it somehow becomes limited by that physical body. It is as if you were sitting buckled in at the driver's seat of a car. If the engine breaks down, you can't go anywhere without unbuckling the seatbelt, opening the door, and leaving the car. The engine could correspond to any of our brain functions. The departure from the car would be the equivalent of dying or having an out of body experience. Similarly, the Katha Upanisad says:
Know the Self as the lord of the chariot and the body as, verily, the chariot, know the intellect as the charioteer and the mind as, verily, the reigns.
--Katha Upanisad (Radhakrishnan), I.3.3
Another possibility is to say that the physical body is manifested, or projected forth, by the energy in the subtle body. The subtle body is affected by past karmas. When such a punishment "shuts down" some aspect of the subtle body temporarily, the corresponding faculty of the physical body shuts down as well. The difficulty with this point of view is that some mental problems seem to have immediate physical causes (such as a bullet in the head). The reply would be that those physical causes were also created by the karma of the people involved.
Yet another possibility is suggested by an anecdote a friend recently told me about a dog. It seems that a certain fellow used to take his dog to the carwash, and they would ride in the car through the carwash together. When they got out of the car on the other side, the dog would shake itself as though it was wet. In this case, the dog seemingly attributed to itself certain qualities that really pertained only to the car. By this analogy, perhaps the subtle body is simply deluded into thinking that injuries to the physical body apply to the subtle body as well. By shaking free of this illusion, the subtle body might be able to retrieve faculties that were thought to be irretrievably lost. Such a hypothesis might help to explain the phenomena of faith healing and healing through positive thinking and visualization.

The Problem of Unequal Evolution
4:10. Since the desire to exist has always been present, our tendencies cannot have had any beginning.
--Patanjali
If all souls were created at the same time, by a god who treated all equally, why is it that today some people are much more spiritually advanced than others? It would seem that one of the following factors must be at work: 
•	The starting conditions were not the same for all. Note that even a small difference might become greater over time, if the system of karma has that characteristic that chaos theorists refer to as "sensitive dependence on initial conditions." 
•	Some random element affects the speed of our evolution. This random element might be grace. On the other hand, it might be an expression of our free will. 
•	We were not all created at the same time. Perhaps Brahma creates some new souls to supplement the old ones at the start of each Day of Brahma. 
I am not aware of any scriptural statements that would help us to choose among these alternatives.

The Problem of Suffering
If you take an individual birth as an isolated event that begins with the birth of the physical body and terminates with its death, you cannot find any correct explanation or solution for the affairs of life...
Why should God make one happy and another unhappy? Is He so whimsical and eccentric? ...The doctrine of karma alone will give satisfaction. It is sound. It appeals to reason. It throws a flood of clear light. Everyone reaps the fruit of his own actions.
Swami Sivananda (1), 102, 105-106
One of the arguments frequently advanced for the theory of reincarnation is that it explains the seemingly unfair distribution of pleasure and pain in the world. Since our pleasures and pains are rewards and punishments for our own past-life actions, we are to blame for our own problems, rather than God.
Yet, if we do create our own suffering through bad actions, one has to wonder why we perform bad actions at all. Are we really that dumb?
Imagine that you have a child. You want to train the child not to do certain things. Therefore, whenever you see them doing something wrong, you don't say anything, but you make a note of it. You wait a few days until the child has forgotten the whole misdeed. Then you grab the child without warning and beat the shit out of them. But you don't bother to tell the child why you're beating him.
What would the child learn from this very roundabout method of discipline? Probably not much, except to hate their parent. But this is how reincarnation is supposed to train us. You are born again, all your previous deeds forgotten, and you are subjected to various rewards and punishments without being told what you did to deserve them. Is it any wonder if people take a long time to learn to do good?
Some would say that that is the whole point of the system. A friend of mine once speculated that there are many universes, and in most of them the souls regain their enlightenment very quickly. So those universes are played out in a short while and come to an early end. For the lila, the divine play, to continue for very long, it has to be very difficult for people to attain enlightenment. We live in a universe that lasts a long time because attaining enlightenment is very, very hard.
So the current system of karma and rebirth can be described as one that causes people to advance, but only very, very, slowly. How are we supposed to feel about this system? Well, there is a strong philosophic strain in Hindu and Buddhist thought that regards our presence in this world as a misfortune to us, because our existence is one of long and frequent suffering. From this theory comes the desire for moksha, or liberation from the wheel of rebirth.
But you can't have it both ways. If you're talking about the unfortunate wheel of rebirth and the need to escape from it, you can't consistently turn around and say that the very same wheel is a good thing. You can't use God's essential goodness as evidence for the existence of this karmic system, when the system itself is also described as painful and unfortunate.
The problem of how a loving God can allow us to suffer is one of the most basic problems of theology, and I won't attempt to resolve it here. I simply want to point out that the theory of karma does not in itself solve this problem. No one suffers deliberately. The system of karma allows and even enforces suffering. Therefore, the Hindu devotee is left in much the same quandry as the Christian with regard to suffering.
However, in one particular aspect, reincarnation does seem less cruel than the system posited by one-life religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). In the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, the sojourns in hell are finite in length and proportional to the sin that caused them. The concept of eternal damnation is foreign to these systems.

Evaluating the Theory of Karma
"This is only a matter of belief. Can it be proved?" declared the barrister. "Yes, by the oral and written testimony of those who have acquired the eye to see what is happening in the astral planes above," the Great Master replied.
"Has any disciple here got that eye, so that he could tell us any of his experiences?" asked the barrister.
"There are a number of such people here," the Great Master said, "but they would not like to be brought into the limelight." 
"There is no question of their gaining fame. It would just satisfy my curiosity about the subject," the barrister persisted.
"They would simply relate their experiences and tell what they have seen. How would that satisfy you that they are telling the truth?" asked the Great Master.
"I would be satisfied by their testimony," the barrister replied.
"Then why not believe my testimony," the Great Master asked, smiling.
At this everyone laughed.
"All right," the Great Master continued, "Daryai Lal will take you to a lady who has recently had such experiences." 
...Bibi Rakhi then described her experiences, which I translated into English for the benefit of those who did not fully understand her language. After her narrative they were thoroughly convinced.
Great Master, 100-101
To the clairvoyant eye this astral body, which has the exact likeness of the physical body from which it has departed, is visible.
San Keshavadas, 27
How do we know whether or not the doctrine of karma and reincarnation is correct? Is it a matter of faith, of paranormal perception, or of reason? Opinions on this topic vary. In the book of essays Dimensions in Karma, Pratima Bowes concludes that "Rebirth then remains a matter of belief and its factuality cannot be proved" (p. 186). In the same volume, Karl H. Potter argues that in the Hindu classics, rebirth and karma "are understood in very much the sprit in which a scientific theory is understood" (p. 134).
Following are some factors that might bear upon our acceptance of this doctrine.

Paranormal Knowledge
To begin with, it is important to recognize that knowledge through paranormal sources is a recognized part of the traditional theory of yoga. Thus, Patanjali says:
The knowledge which is gained from inference and the study of scriptures is knowledge of one kind. But the knowledge which is gained from samadhi is of a much higher order. It goes beyond inferences and scriptures.
Patanjali I:49
Patanjali gives a long list of the types of knowledge that a yogi can gain through meditation on particular objects.
The knowledge-status of such paranormal perceptions is slightly different from those experiences we call "divine revelations" in the West. Revelations seem to be given at unpredictable intervals to people whom God has chosen for His own inscrutable reasons. In yoga, by contrast, psychic powers are considered a normal side-effect of advanced states of meditation, and at least in principle, are attainable by anyone.
Whether they are attainable by everyone in practice is another question. People who attempt meditation and other spiritual disciplines experience varying degrees of progress and success. Patanjali attributes the speed of progress to the intensity of effort that the student puts forth. However, karma from past lives and the effects of divine grace are often also cited as factors affecting the student's progress. One thing that all teachers seem to agree on is that very few people reach enlightenment quickly.
As a result, we cannot expect to experience truly advanced states of meditation ourselves unless we are unusually fortunate or willing to dedicate years or decades of our lives to fairly intense disciplines. Even then, there is no guarantee of success in a single lifetime. So it would be difficult to make that commitment unless you were fairly confident that the result would, in the end, be worth the trouble.
The Perception of Karma
Having established that psychic perceptions are an accepted means of attaining knowledge in Hindu tradition, we may ask whether such perceptions are in fact the basis of the theory or doctrine of karma.
It is certainly true that various modern Hindu sages have had experiences which, for them, confirmed the doctrine of rebirth. Swami Muktananda, in his autobiography Play of Consciousness, describes visions in which he visited several of the heavens and hells that are described by Hindu scriptures. Similarly, Mother Meera has painted a number of pictures of the after-life journey of her late friend Mr. Reddy. In her book Answers, Meera says "I simply paint what I see."
The Role of Scripture
Yet it is also true that the Hindu tradition seems to regard its oldest scriptures with greatest reverence, with successively less authority being ascribed to more and more modern writings. It is curious, for example, on reading Sankaracarya's commentary on the Brahma-Sutras, to discover how he makes himself subservient to the Upanisads and Vedas. Since Sankaracarya is one of the most prominent thinkers in the history of Hindu religion, and many of his own writings are viewed by devotees as scriptures themselves, you might think he would have recourse to some of his own perceptions when he interprets older scriptures. But he makes at least a pretense of regarding the authority of those scriptures as absolute, and he justifies his views strictly by citing appropriate scriptural references.
What are we supposed to make of this? That Sankaracarya was less enlightened or less psychically powerful than the authors of the Upanisads? He may have conceived himself to be so. However, his writing is filled with such elaborate rhetorical devices that this subservience could also be a pretense, assumed for the role of convincing readers who have more faith in the scriptures than they do in him. Others who have studied the rest of Sankaracarya's writings could comment on this issue more effectively. But the point remains that the old scriptures seem to be regarded more highly than the revelations of living masters.
Second-Hand Knowledge
The upshot is that, for ordinary people, the belief in reincarnation is based on trust in others who are thought to have superior access to spiritual knowledge. Those others might be ancient authors of the scriptures or the modern sages whose experiences confirm the scriptures.
For most ordinary people, then, the question becomes one of: Why should I trust the assertions made by these gurus? What reason do I have to believe that their teachings are correct? Following are some of the criteria we can apply when evaluating the doctrines of those who speak from revelation or psychic perception: 
•	Consistency and Explanatory Power 
•	Correctness of Related Teachings
•	Intuitive "Rightness" 

Consistency and Explanatory Power
Internal Consistency
So far as I have been able to determine, the doctrine of karma is expounded by Hindu sources in a very incomplete manner. "Mysterious are the ways of karma" is one of the frequent refrains in writings upon this subject. The various "problems" I have addressed in this work arise precisely because of the incomplete manner in which the theory is described. Before I could reach any conclusions on the consistency of the theory, I had to infer a more complete version of the theory.
The good news is that fundamental contradictions seem to be lacking, though some Hindu teachers differ in their interpretation of the details. Even when you infer a more complete theory to fill in the gaps, no irreconcilable contradictions come to light.
Consistency with Other Teachers
What I mean by this heading is, "Consistency with other teachers who base their teachings on divine revelations or psychic experiences." If this means of knowledge is reliable, then seemingly it should produce consistent results among people around the world.
Joseph Head and S. L. Cranston, in their book Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology, cite examples of reincarnational belief from around the world. Still, there is no disguising the fact that not everyone believes in reincarnation and not all religions teach it. It is possible that the enlightened souls within each religious tradition have realized the truth of reincarnation. If this is so, then they apparently have not publicized this truth for some reason. Such a hidden unity of belief among religious masters is quite possible, but so far as I know, there is no objective evidence for it. For example, the biblical passages sometimes cited as referring to reincarnation can all be interpreted in other ways.
Another possibility is the One True Religion theory; the notion that one religion is correct, while all others are false. You could pick Hinduism as the correct religion and reject all the others; or you could say that Hinduism is more correct than other religions, which are partially correct to whatever extent they resemble Hinduism. However, it would be difficult to do this since Hinduism itself contains a number of problematical features.
Explanatory Power
What does the doctrine of karma and rebirth explain? Some of the candidates are: 
•	Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people. 
•	Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge. 
•	Why some people are born with extraordinary talents. 
•	Why we experience "deja vu." 
•	Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc. 
•	Why some people have memories of past births. 
However, all of these items are explainable in other ways, viz.: 
•	Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people. 
Explanation: Because there is no personal God and there is no moral order to the universe. (There are other explanations for this dilemma, but the no-God explanation is obviously the simplest one. Other theories tend to require a good deal of theological tap-dancing.)
•	Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge. 
Explanation: The theory of evolution, proposed by Darwin and refined by later scientists, is taken by many to be an adequate explanation of this point.
•	Why some people are born with extraordinary talents. 
Explanation: Largely the same as previous item. Additionally, studies have shown that "child prodigies" usually get a lot of encouragement and support from their parents. A combination of genetic endowment and appropriate environment could be at work.
•	Why we experience "deja vu" -- the sense of having visited a place before. 
Explanation: An experience so vague in its nature might have many possible explanations, whether based on neurological phenomena, childhood memories that are "similar" but not identical, etc.
•	Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc. 
Explanation: In advanced meditation, one's mind is subjected to a type of sensory deprivation. That is, one withdraws to a quiet place and sits motionless, eyes usually closed. One then usually attempts to focus attention on one simple, repetitive thought or sensation.
In conditions of prolonged sensory deprivation, people typically begin to hallucinate. The content of such hallucinations could easily be influenced by cultural and religious indoctrination.
•	Why some people have spontaneous or recovered memories of past births. 
Explanation: Wishful thinking, hallucination, and fraud could all play a role in such cases. With regard to the topic of "hypnotic regressions," it is worth noting that a hypnotist can instill false beliefs in susceptible subjects. It is equally possible that a hypnotist could induce the mind to generate a general type of fantasy that "feels" subjectively real.
On the other hand, the famous cases of reincarnation all involve proofs. These consist of the person displaying knowledge of past events that the person "could not possibly have known," but which are confirmed by later research. The difficulty in principle here is in establishing that someone "could not have known" something through normal means. The book Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers recounts a fascinating case of a young woman who turned out to have had access to historical information that she consciously forgot, but which her subconscious was able to draw upon when constructing a "past life" under hypnosis.
Therefore, there is nothing explained by the doctrine of karma and rebirth that cannot be explained by other means. Nevertheless, this doctrine might be preferable if it has advantages compared to those other explanations. For example, you might find some cases of past-life recollections to be so remarkable and compelling as to demand belief. In any case, let us postpone that question for the moment and return to it later.

Correctness of Related Teachings
The problematical features of Hinduism could be said to fall into two categories: instances of dubious values, and instances of incorrect knowledge claims.
Note: This section could be offensive to Hindus or others strongly sympathetic to this religion. Please understand that it is not my aim to devalue the religion as a whole, but merely to show that reasonable doubt attaches to some particular doctrines advocated by Hindu scriptures. This doubt has bearing on the question of whether the theory of karma is itself a reliable one.
Dubious Values
In one sense, values might seem to be beyond criticism, because values are statements of preference rather than of fact. However, values can work at cross purposes to each other. If you value the happiness of humanity in general, then some specific elements of Hinduism are of concern as they seem to militate against human happiness. Following are some examples: 
•	Caste System
•	Sacred Animals
•	Status of Widows
Knowledge Claims
Much of Hindu metaphysics deals with issues that are not easily proven or disproven. However, like the Judeo-Christian scriptures, the Hindu scriptures do contain some theories about the physical universe that we can compare with our current knowledge. The topics we can examine in this way include: 
•	World Cycles
•	Geography
•	Astronomy and the Heavens
Liberal and Fundamentalist Views
Faced with apparent discrepancies in scripture, the devotee often retreats either to a liberal or a fundamentalist position, as described under: 
•	Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations 

Caste System
The first sticking point for a Westerner studying Hinduism is generally the caste system. Thus, in one of the most famous of the Vedic hymns, we read:
When they divided the Purusa, into how many parts did they arrange him? What was his mouth? What his two arms? What are his thighs and feet called? The brahmin was his mouth, his two arms were made the rajanya (warrior), his two thighs the vaisya (trader and agriculturalist), from his feet the sudra (servile class) was born. 
— Purusa Suktam, quoted in Radhakrishan and Moore, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy 
The Bhagavad Gita goes further to say: 
Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed. Better is death in the doing of one's own dharma: the dharma of another is fraught with peril. 
— Bhagavad Gita 3:35
The above is in the context of Krishna urging Arjuna to do battle because it is his duty as a kshatriya (member of the warrior caste). A remarkable point is that Krishna appears to acknowledge that one's innate talents can differ from one's caste, but that being true to one's caste is nevertheless more important. Surely such values would lead to a fantastic waste of talent.
The following quote perhaps gives us an idea of what Krishna meant by "fraught with peril." This passage from the Laws of Manu gives the karmic punishments of those who stray from the duties of each of the four castes: priest, ruler (or warrior), commoner, and servant.
But those classes who slip away from their own innate activities when they are not in extremity pass through evil transmigrations and then become the menial servants of aliens. A priest who has slipped from his own duty becomes a "comet-mouth" ghost who eats vomit; a ruler becomes a "false-stinking" ghost who eats impure things and corpses. A commoner who has slipped from his duty becomes a ghost "who sees by an eye in his anus", eating pus; a servant becomes a "moth-eater" ghost. 
— The Laws of Manu, 12:70-72
The Laws of Manu also states that sudras must not read the Vedas. On the other hand, a correspondent of mine named Vishal Agarwal informs me that the Yajurveda, White or Vajasneyi Samhita, contains the following verse, which clearly mentions instructing sudras about the Word: 
I do hereby address this salutary speech for the benefit of humanity—for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishyas, for them who are your own and the foreignor alike. 
—Yajurveda XXVI.2 
Vishal mentions as well the Hindu dictum that "A smriti opposed to shruti is invalid." In other words, in Hinduism the Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures, are also regarded as the highest ones, the ones most directly revealed by God. Other scriptures are considered valid only insofar as they are consistent with the Vedas. 
Some modern Hindu teachers assert that the caste system, in its original form, was not hereditary. Thus, Paramahansa Yogananda says:
"Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated the by goal in life he elected to achieve," an article in East-West for January, 1935 tells us. "This goal could be (1) kama, desire, activity of the life of the senses (Sudra stage), (2) artha, gain, fulfilling but controlling the desires (Vaisya stage), (3) dharma, self-discipline, the life of responsibility and right action (Kshatriya stage), (4) moksha, liberation, the life of spirituality and religious teaching (Brahmin stage). These four castes render service to humanity by (1) body, (2) mind, (3) will power, (4) Spirit. 
"These four stages have their correspondence in the eternal gunas or qualities of nature, tamas, rajas, and sattwa: obstruction, activity, and expansion... Thus has nature marked every man with his caste, by the predominance in himself of one, or the mixture of two, of the gunas. Of course every human being has all three gunas in varying proportions. The guru will be able rightly to determine a man's caste or evolutionary status."... 
Serious evils arose when the caste system became hardened through the centuries into a hereditary halter. India, self-governing since 1947, is making slow but sure progress in restoring the ancient values of caste, based solely on natural qualification and not on birth. 
— Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi 
Another kindly correspondent, named Michael Kagan, has drawn my attention to the statements of the modern Hindu philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan about the caste system, such as the following: 
The fourfold order is the caste system. The emphasis is on guna (aptitude) and karma (function), and not jati (birth). The varna, or the order to which we belong, is independent of sex, birth, and breeding. — A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy 
Radhakrishnan cites a number of scriptural references to support this viewpoint. Thus, he mentions the story of Satyakama Jabala. In the story, a young man of uncertain caste goes to ask a guru for instruction. The guru asks of what family the young man is. 
"I do not know this, Sir, of what family I am. I asked my mother. She answered me: 'In my youth, when I went about a great deal serving as a maid, I got you. So I do not know this, of what family you are. However, I am Jabala by name; you are Satyakama by name.' So I am Satyakama Jabala, sir." 
To him he then said: "A non-brahmin would not be able to explain thus. Bring the fuel, my dear. I will receive you as a pupil. You have not deviated from the truth." 
— Chandogya Upanisad, IV.iv.1-5; from A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy 
In another Upanisad, we find 
Then, who, verily is the Brahmana? He who, after directly perceiving, like the amalaka fruit in the palm of one's hand, the Self, without a second, devoid of distinctions of birth, attribute, and action, devoid of all faults... who functions as the indwelling spirit of all beings... and through the fulfilment of his nature, becomes rid of the faults of desire, attachment, etc., and endowed with qualities of tranquility... He alone who is possessed of these qualities is the Brahmana. This is the view of the Vedic texts and tradition, ancient lore and history. 
— Vajrasucika Upanisad, in The Principal Upanisads 
In his notes to this Upanisad, Radhakrishnan also quotes similar sentiments from various portions of the Mahabharata: 
Listen about caste, Yaksa dear, not study, not learning is the cause of rebornness. Conduct is the basis, there is no doubt about it. 
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 312.106 
O King of serpents, he in whom are manifest truthfulness, charity, forbearance, good conduct, non-injury, austerity and compassion is a Brahmana according to the sacred tradition. 
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.20 
O serpent he in whom this conduct is manifest is a Brahmana, he in whom this is absent treat all such as Sudra. 
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.27 
The gods consider him a Brahmana (a knower of Brahman) who has no desires, who undertakes no work, who does not salute or praise anybody, whose work has been exhausted by who himself is unchanged. 
— Mahabharata, XII.269.34 
Similarly, he quotes 
I am a poet, my father is a doctor, my mother a grinder of corn. 
— Rg-Veda, ix.112.3, in Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosphy, Volume 1 
On the other hand, in the Laws of Manu we find statements that seem to explicitly link caste to heredity. 
In all castes those (children) only which are begotten in the direct order on wedded wives, equal (in caste and married as) virgins, are to be considered as belonging to the same caste (as their fathers). 
Men who commit adultery with the wives of others, the king shall cause to be marked by punishments which cause terror, and afterwards banish. For by (adultery) is caused a mixture of the castes among men; thence (follows) sin, which cuts up even the roots and causes the destruction of everything. 
— The Laws of Manu, X.5 and VIII.352-3 
How do we reconcile these conflicting impressions? Radhakrishan says: 
The original Aryans all belonged to one class, every one being priest and soldier, trader and tiller of the soil. There was no privileged order of priests. The complexity of life led to a division of classes among the Aryans... As we shall see, when sacrifices assume an important role, when the increasing complexity of life rendered necessary division of life, certain families, distinguished for learning, wisdom, poetic and speculative gifts, became representatives in worship... When the Vedic religion developed into a regulated ceremonialism, these families formed themselves into a class... The rest were classed as the people or the Vaisyas. Originally occupational, the division soon became hereditary... Those who followed the learned professions, those who fought, those who traded all belonged to one whole, which was separated by a wider gulf from the conquered races... It is sometimes said that the aborigines converted and accepted by the Aryans are the Sudras, while those excluded by them are the Panchamas. It is maintained by others that the Aryans had in their own communities Sudras even before they came to the southern part of India. It is not easy to decide between these rival hypotheses. 
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 
And, again 
Though originally framed on the basis of qualities, caste very soon became a matter of birth. It is hard to know who has which qualities. The only available test is birth. The confusion of birth and qualities has led to an undermining of the spiritual foundation of caste. There is no necessity why men of a particular birth should always possess the character expected of them. Since the facts of life do not answer to the logical ideal, the whole institution of caste is breaking down. 
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 
These attempts to posit a "kinder, gentler" caste system tend to leave me a bit confused. If a caste is not hereditary, then in what sense is it a caste? By the time of the Bhagavad-Gita, at least, there is evidently considerable tension related to the caste structure, since Krishna says "Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed." Compare this with Yogananda's "Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated by the goal in life he elected to achieve." On the contrary, Krishna seems to say that you should not elect your own goals in life, but follow those that have been determined for you. 
If the earlier forms of Hinduism are indeed the purest, then it would be especially interesting to determine whether the Vedas discuss the doctrine of karma and reincarnation. Unfortunately, this is a topic that apparently is interpreted differently by different scholars. I will add further information as it becomes available to me. 

Sacred Animals
The Hindu attitude of reverence toward cows is of course well known. In this connection we find:
He should never emit excrement or urine while facing the wind or looking at fire, a priest, the sun, water, or cows.
The Laws of Manu, 4:48
The punishment in hell for those who break this rule is picturesque:
Crows rip out the intestines through the anus of men who urinate in front of cows, brahmins, the sun or fire.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51
The Hindu regard for cobras is a little less well-known. In this regard, we find
The cobra is responsible for many deaths each year in India, where it is regarded with religious awe and seldom killed. (Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)
There is nothing logically inconsistent with supposing cows or cobras to be sacred. Hinduism is far from being the only religion to regard selected animals as specially sacred or specially unclean. However, when you compare various religions, you find that they do not agree about which animals are special. A Hindu incurs sin by eating beef, because cows are divine. Meanwhile, a Jew or Moslem can eat cows because they're really nothing special, but eating pork is bad because pigs are unclean. In Ancient Egypt, each county regarded a different animal as sacred, and one easy way to insult your neighbors was to eat their sacred animal. In other words, if there is any objective truth underlying most world religions, the rules about sacred and unclean animals are not part of that truth.

Status of Widows
Like the caste system, the status of widows in Hinduism is an element that seems at first to be morally indefensible, but which becomes more complicated and difficult to define when you pursue it further. To begin with some of the worst examples, we find the following in The Laws of Manu:
A virtuous wife should never do anything displeasing to the husband who took her hand in marriage, when he is alive or dead, if she longs for her husband's world (after death) . . . She should be long-suffering until death, self-restrained, and chaste, striving (to fulfill) the unsurpassed duty of women who have one husband . . . But a woman who violates her (vow to her dead) husband because she is greedy for progeny is the object of reproach here on earth and loses the world beyond.
The Laws of Manu, 5:156,158,161
The policy with regard to widowers, however, is quite different:
When he has given the (sacrificial) fires in the final ritual to the wife who has died before him, he may marry again and kindle the fires again. He must never neglect the five (great) sacrifices, but should take a wife and live in his house, in accordance with this rule, for the second part of his life.
The Laws of Manu, 5:168-169
In discussing the punishments meted out in hell for various crimes, the Puranas yield the following insight:
Also those who remarry widows... must eat ants and worms.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51
So unfortunate was the fate of widows considered to be that we find the following cited as a benefit of chanting the Guru Gita:
It averts women's widowhood... If a widow repeats it without desire, she attains salvation. (If she repeats it) with desire, she will not become a widow in her next lifetime.
Guru Gita, v. 145-147
In addition, of course, one has heard the stories of women who were praised for their devotion because they flung themselves on their late husband's funeral pyre to burn up along with him. This practice is known as sati. A correspondent named Vishal Agarwal has provided me with the following quotes that advocate this practice or at least mention it without disapproval: 
•	Mahabharata Adiparvan 95.65 describes the sati of Madari, the wife of Pandu (according to P. V. Kane). 
•	Mahabharata Mausalaparvan 7.18 states that when Sri Krishna died, his wives namely Madura, Rohini, Bhadraa, and Devaki, committed sati (also according to P. V. Kane). 
•	Vishnu Dharmasutra XXV.14 contains the statement: 
On her husband's death, the widow should observe celibacy or should ascend the funeral pyre after him. 
On the other hand, Vishal informs me that more liberal attitudes toward widowhood are expressed in some other scriptures, including the Vedas, which Hindus consider to be the most authoritative of their scriptures. I haven't yet had a chance to find copies of the quotations he cites. Until I do so, the following references might be of some use to serious students. According to Vishal, 
•	Atharva Veda XVIII.3.1-4 condemns the practice of sati as follows: 
Choosing her husband's realm, O man! (i.e. the dead man) this widowed woman lies next to your lifeless body, preserving faithfully the ancient law. Bestow upon her, both wealth and offspring. 
O woman! (Since this man cannot bestow upon thee wealth, happiness and offspring) Come, rise unto the world of the living! Come, the man by whose side you lie is lifeless! Thy days of wifehood with this man, who wooed thee as a lover and took your hand (during the wedding ceremony) are over. 
I (the sage) looked and saw the youthful maiden being escorted from the living to him who was dead. I saw them (her relatives and girlfriends) console her. I saw her being blinded by the darkness of sorrow and then, I turned her back and took her homeward. 
O ye inviolable one! (the widow) Tread the path of the wise in front of thee and choose this man (another suitor) as they husband. Joyfully receive him and may the two of you mount the world of happiness. 
•	Atharva Veda IX.5.27-29 includes a verse that translates as 
Whatever woman, having first married one husband, marries another, she and the other new husband will not be separated if they offer a goat and five rice dishes illumined with religious fees. 
Vishal comments: "The phrase panchaudana aga ( a goat and five rice dishes) could also mean 'the soul and the five senses' in which case the implication would be that the new husband and wife should be devoted to each other." 
•	Rig Veda X.18.8-9 includes the following verses, the first of which duplicates one of the previously cited verses from the Atharva Veda: 
Rise O Woman! Come to the world of the living. Come, the man by whose side you are lying is lifeless. Be united with this man as his wife, who holds thy hand and seeks to be thy husband. 
(The new husband says) Taking the bow from the hand of the departed, let us launch a new life of valour and strength . . . Here are you my beloved, in front of me. Now we two, with virtuous and valourous children, will triumph over all who challenge us and compete with us. 
•	Rig Veda X.40.2 includes the following verse: 
O Ashwins! Where are you in the evening, where at the morning, where do you sojourn? Where do you dwell? And who is the one that brings you both into his presence, as a second husband to the couch of the widow, or the groom in front of his bride? 
—Rig Veda X.40.2 
Vishal notes: "In my opinion, this verse is merely a reference to widow remarriage and does not really sanction or enjoin it." 
•	The remarriage of widows is advocated in the Vashista Dharmasutra of the Rigvedins. 
•	In the epic Mahabharata, Sri Krishna prevents Uttara from committing sati after the death of her husband Abhimanyu. (Vishal is uncertain of the exact location of this story, but suggests the Stree or Mausala Parvans.) 
•	The following verse is cited by P. V. Kane, in his History of Dharmashastra: 
Another man is ordained for women in five calamities: a) When the husband is missing and is unheard of; b) The husband dies; c) When the husband is impotent; d) When the husband has become an ascetic; e) The husband has become depraved. 
—Agnipurana 154.5-5; Parashara Smriti IV.30; and Narada Smriti V.97. 
To summarize, it appears that various Hindu scriptures give conflicting viewpoints on the status and proper conduct of widows. Vishal says 
What then to do with these conflicting opinions, especially since there are literally 100's of verses in the Hindu literature forbidding widow remarriage? I feel that the Vedas, which are of paramount authority for Hindus, do not forbid remarriage of widows anywhere but rather advocate. They therefore automatically abrogate all contrary injunctions of other religious literature. The Poorva Meemamsa rules for the interpretation of scripture clearly state that if two smritis clash, the two conflicting viewpoints indicate alternative practices, both being equally valid. Even according to this rule, widow remarriage is offered as an alternative to the lifelong celibacy of widows in the Smritis. 
My thanks to Vishal and to anyone with further references to share on this subject. 

World Cycles
Refer to "The Hindu Theory of World Cycles" elsewhere in this study.

Geography
The Puranic description of the geography of Earth is full of fabulous elements. For example,
Earth, composed of seven continents, together with the oceans extends 500,000,000 leagues across. Holy Jambudvipa lies in the middle of all the continents; in its center is said to be lofty Mt. Meru, bright as gold. Its height is 84,000 leagues, and it extends 16,000 leagues below the earth; its width at the top is 32,000 leagues, and its diameter at the base is 16,000 leagues.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 52
In this quote, "league" is presumably a translation of a Sanskrit term at least loosely approximating the usual English meaning of "league" (about three miles). At this rate, Mt. Meru is something like 252,000 miles high. The tallest actual mountain on Earth is Mt. Everest, at about 29,000 ft, or less than six miles.
In the next quote we see that the impossibly high Mt. Meru is held to be the source of really existing rivers in India such as the Sita:
Ganga, the heavenly river flowing from the feet of Visnu and inundating the orb of the moon, falls all around the city of Brahma. Falling on the four regions, O twice-born ones, she subdivides into four rivers, namely Sita, Alakananda, Sucaksus and Bhadra. The river Sita flows from the atmosphere east of Mt. Meru and then through the eastern range called Bhadrasva to the sea. And each of the others does likewise: Alakananda to the South enters Bharatavarsa; Sucaksus to the West falls on Ketumala, and Bhadra to the North falls through Uttarakuru...
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54
The scripture then describes nine different subcontinents, of which one (Bharatavarsa) includes or is the same as India. Eight of the subcontinents are populated by people who live paradisial lives. Their lifespans are 10,000 years apiece or more and their diet consists of sweet foods like bread-fruit and sugarcane. By contrast,
In Bharatavarsa women and men display diverse colors, worship various gods and perform many different duties. The full length of their lives is said to be a hundred years, O virtuous ones. They consume all kinds of food and live their lives according to virtue or vice... In these eight subcontinents, Kimpurusa and the others, O great sears, there is neither sorrow nor weariness, and no anxiety, hunger, or fear. And the people, healthy, unoppressed, free from all cares, ever youthful, all enjoy themselves in various ways. Only in Bharatavarsa, the wise say, and nowhere else, occur the four Ages: Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54
Of these nine [lands], it is in Bharat-varsha only that there are sorrow, weariness, and hunger; the inhabitants of other varshas are exempt from all distress and pain, and there is in them no distinction of yugas. Bharata is the land of works, where men perform actions, winning either a place in Heaven, or release; or, it may be, rebirth in Hell, according to their merit. Bharata is, therefore, the best of Varshas; other varshas are for enjoyment alone. Happy are those who are reborn, even were they gods, as men in Bharat-varsha, for that is the way to the Supreme.
Coomaraswamy and Nivedita, 396
In this theory of geography, it is only on one subcontinent that people experience what we think of as normal human life, with its usual span of years and usual mixture of pleasure and pain. Most of the subcontinents are earthly paradises. Yet paradise is always somewhere else, on another continent far away (as proposed by Hindu geography) or in the far distant past (as proposed by the Hindu theory of world cycles).
Today the entire planet is explored, mapped, and surveyed by satellites, and no earthly paradises have come to light. You can still imagine that some hidden Shangri-La is tucked away somewhere, but it would have to be pretty small. The paradisial subcontinents proposed by Hindu geography would have been easy to imagine thousands or even hundreds of years ago, when every world map had blank stretches labeled "Terra Incognita." However, today we know that these places simply don't exist.

Astronomy and the Heavens
The Hindu concepts of astronomy and of the celestial heavens are inextricably bound together, as we see in the following:
This earth, which is the object of the physical senses and of the knowledge based thereon, is but one of fourteen worlds or regions placed "above" and "below" it... The sphere of earth (Bhurloka), with its continents, their mountains and rivers, and with its oceans, is the seventh and lowest of the upper worlds. Beneath it are the Hells and Nether Worlds, the names of which are given below. Above the terrestrial sphere is Bhuvarloka, or the atmospheric sphere known as the antariksha, extending "from the earth to the sun," in which the Siddhas and other celestial beings (devayoni) of the upper air dwell. "From the sun to the pole star" (dhruva) is svarloka, or the heavenly sphere.
--John Woodroffe (1), 24
Note that Bhuvarloka and Svarloka are two of the heavenly realms in which we may experience the rewards of good deeds in between earthly lives. Here they are given a physical location as concentric spheres grouped around the earth like layers of an onion. The same type of image is picked up in the following text:
Bhurloka, Bhuvarloka, Svarloka, Maharloka, Janaloka, Taparloka and Satyaloka are the worlds thought to have their origin in the egg. In the old stories Bhurloka is said to stretch out as far as sun and moon radiate their beams of light, O bulls of the twice-born. As far as Bhurloka extends in width and circumference, so does Bhuvarloka spread out from the sphere of the sun, from which sphere the firmament extends upward as far as Dhruva* is located. This region is called Svarloka... The sphere of the sun lies 100,000 leagues from earth. The orb of the moon is also said to be 100,000 leagues from the sun. The whole circle of naksatras** appears the same distance from the moon. Twice this distance beyond the naksatras, O wise ones, is the planet Budha (Mercury), and Usanas (Venus) dwells the same distance from Budha. Angaraka (Mars) too is the same distance from Sukra (Venus). The priest of the gods (Brhaspati/Jupiter) resides 200,000 leagues from Bhauma (Mars), while Sauri (Saturn) is the same distance from the guru (Jupiter). This is the sphere of the planets. The sphere of the Seven Seers*** shines 100,000 leagues' distance from that. Dhruva* dwells the same number of leagues above the sphere of the seers. Dhruva is the central point of this entire wheel of luminaries in which resides the lord Dharma, Visnu Narayana.
--Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, pp. 46-47.
* The pole star
** The stellar constellations through which the moon appears to pass in the course of its orbit
*** The Little Dipper
There are a number of inaccuracies in this account, including: 
•	The notion that the distance from the earth to the sun is the same as the distance from the sun to the moon. Actually, the distance between earth and sun is vastly greater than the distance from the sun to the moon. 
•	The stars in the naksatras (lunar constellations) are said to be closer to us than are several of the planets; but actually, all stars are vastly more distant from us than all planets. 
•	The listed distances between the planets are neither accurate nor even proportional to their actual distances. 
•	The stars in the Little Dipper are said to be proportionally only slightly further from us than Saturn, whereas actually they are vastly more distant. 
In addition to the inaccuracies, there is the strange omission of all mention of the outer planets (Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto). This omission is easy to understand if you suppose the Hindu astronomy was based on naked-eye observations; much more difficult if you suppose that such knowledge come from the infallible psychic insight of great rishis.
Note that both the descriptions above link Bhurloka and Bhuvarloka to the (inaccurate) conceptions of the physical solar system. This being the case, what confidence can we have in other scriptural statements about these lokas, or about the cycle of reincarnation that takes souls to and from these lokas?

Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations
Faced with scriptural inaccuracies such as these, it is common for the theologian (of whatever religion) to either take a fundamentalist hard line or to suggest that certain doctrines were always intended figuratively rather than literally.
The fundamentalist hard line simply denies the truth of any scientific findings that contradict scripture. In the West, the whole controversy about teaching evolution in classrooms stems from this fundamentalist hard line, but there are fundamentalists in the East as well, as we see in the following anecdote:
When I was in India in the winter of 1954, in conversation with an Indian gentleman of just about my own age, he asked with a certain air of distance, after we had exchanged formalities, "What are you Western scholars now saying about the dating of the Vedas?"
The Vedas, you must know, are the counterparts for the Hindu of the Torah for the Jew. They are his scriptures of the most ancient date and therefore of the highest revelation.
"Well," I answered, "the dating of the Vedas has lately been reduced and is being assigned, I believe, to something like 1500 to 1000 B.C. As you probably know," I added, "there have been found in India itself the remains of an earlier civilization than the Vedic."
"Yes," said the Indian gentleman, not testily but firmly, with an air of untroubled assurance, "I know; but as an orthodox Hindu I cannot believe that there is anything in the universe earlier than the Vedas."
"Okay," said I. "Then why did you ask?"
--Joseph Campbell, p. 17
The liberal line, which interprets things figuratively, seems at first more attractive. It does not require you to believe anything known to be untrue, and it finds a residual value in those cherished teachings that are not literally true. However, there are two problems with this approach: 
•	Although we may be able to take a teaching figuratively, how can we be sure that it was originally intended that way? Teachings that now seem too bizarre to be taken literally might have seemed quite normal and believable in the context of another culture in the distant past. 
•	Once we start taking some doctrines figuratively, how do we know where to stop? For example, if Mt. Meru is a symbol for something other than a physical mountain, then how do we know that reincarnation is not merely a symbol for something else? Why accept one and not the other? 

Intuitive "Rightness"
Although we have been speaking in a fairly analytical way up to this point, it is well to bear in mind that, in daily life, most of our knowledge is not arrived at through analysis. It is thought by many that the intuitive faculties of the human mind can draw on much more information than we can assess analytically, and certainly there are a lot of remarkable anecdotes about the power of dreams and intuition in problem-solving. Thus, it seems worthwhile to take a look at the intuitive appeal of karma.
The Moral Order
In the first place, we have probably all had the experience of doing something we believed to be wrong, and experiencing a certain twinge. Remorse is certainly part of it, but there seems also to be a definite component of fear. On some level, we must expect to be punished, even if there is no rational reason to believe such a punishment will occur.
Hopefully we have also each had the experience of doing something unusually decent for another human being, and feeling warmed by the experience, almost as if we had earned the approval of a loving parent.
So the intuition of a moral order, somehow more definite and objective than mere social convention, is a common one in humanity. Yet in daily life we seem often to see examples of bad things happening to good people, and good things happening to bad people. 
The theory of karma has a definite appeal in this area, as it proposes that we really will be rewarded or punished for our good and bad actions. In fact, in this area the theory of karma has an advantage even over Western religious ideas of an eternal Heaven and eternal Hell; because any reward or punishment of infinite duration is clearly not in proportion to one's original acts.
I once saw a show in which Bill Moyers interviewed the scholar Elaine Pagels. She made the point that guilt can, in a perverse way, be comforting. For if you suppose that the suffering in your life is a punishment for past misdeeds, then it follows that you can amend your life and thus avoid future punishments. But if you suppose that suffering is meted out by chance, then the whole system is out of your control. The theory of karma provides a reassurance of this moral order and makes the world a less frightening place.
Continuing Existence
Although there is much to indicate that we each exist only for a short lifespan, humans have long denied that this is so. Intellectually one can grasp the fact that we are bound to die; but the idea remains an abstraction, hard to relate to in a personal sense. It seems that some part of us does not really expect to die and does not really believe that we can simply cease to be.
Similarly, for some the experiences of deja vu can be very strong. People visiting regions far from home may have a sudden sense of "homecoming" or some other intense emotional response that has no obvious cause. Even when simply reading of ancient cultures, one may feel an abiding sympathy with some and an instant antipathy to others, as if we have been biased by previous experiences long lost to conscious memory.
Related to deja vu is the sense of predestination and hidden causalities in life. When we reflect on the little incidents that first bring us into contact with the person we wind up marrying, we may find it hard to believe that it all happened by chance. When we go on a trek to the Gobi desert and unexpectedly run into an old friend from high school, we are surprised by the coincidence, and understandably curious to know what hidden force has brought us back together.
All these feelings accord well with the doctrine of karma and reincarnation.
Symmetry
Symmetry in general also has a powerful aesthetic appeal, and when described in simplistic terms, the theory of karma sounds nicely symmetrical. Thus, karma is sometimes summarized by the statement that "every action has an equal and opposite reaction," just as in Newtonian physics.
Unfortunately, this perception of symmetry is based largely on an incomplete knowledge of karma theory. The fact that people have differing natures makes it unlikely that people will return to you exactly the deeds that you did to them. Thus you are faced with reprisals that come through other people or that take a form quite different from the original act (for example, your repayment might be a bodily disease).
Simplicity
A striking feature of the theory of karma is that it seems to become more complex and baroque the more closely you look at it, with areas that are obscure and mechanisms that in some cases seem redundant. Our discussion of "Problems in the Theory of Karma" yielded many examples of these complexities and obscurities, such as : 
•	The fact that repayments for our actions occur both in future human births and in the various heavens and hells between births. There is no clear rationale for why both mechanisms should be necessary or how results are divided between them. Further, there are hints that the division was not always understood in the way it is now. Thus, the Upanisads state that we are not reborn on Earth until our karmas are exhausted in the heavens and hells; Sankaracarya is then hard put to it to explain how there can be leftover karma to determine our worldly existence. 
•	The existence of the Law of Desire and the Law of Action, which appear to work in opposite ways. To resolve this difficulty, I had to make assumptions that are only loosely supported by scripture. 
•	The question of whose karma causes a recompense to occur--my own, or that of the person whose action repays me. 
•	The question of how karmic causes coexist and interact with physical causes. 
•	The question of how the vast complexities of the system are coordinated. While my concept of the "karmic web" is, I think, an elegant solution, it also appears to be my own invention. 
Ideally, a theory should be simpler than the phenomena it seeks to explain. It is not clear that the theory of karma really achieves this goal.

The Divine Imperative
In reading statements made by Christian fundamentalists, I was greatly surprised to discover that some, at least, feel that their belief was thrust upon them against their will. The notion is that "God awakened me and made me to believe; I had no choice but to obey."
I have to confess to a little skepticism in this regard, since I find myself so well able to doubt almost anything that I think about too much. My suspicion is that people adopt this attitude to avoid having to examine beliefs that are basically indefensible. In other words, one's own fears could cause one to cling to one's beliefs, even without the direct intervention of God.
However, from a strictly logical point of view we cannot deny the possibility of an omnipotent God who chooses to make certain people believe certain things. Perhaps this God even forces some people to believe in the doctrine of karma. Even if this is so, however, we can hardly be sure that the beliefs he forces on people are correct beliefs.

Scientific Study
And as far as the plausibility of rebirth is concerned, physical sciences and their theories are irrelevant. The methodology of physical sciences is made to measure for the investigation of physical energy. If there is more to a human being than physical energy as the philosophy of rebirth certainly believes there is, science cannot be the last word on what is or is not possible where human beings are concerned.
--Pratima Bowes, in Pappu, 186
Does the doctrine of karma assert that there is "more to a human being than physical energy"? At first glance, it would certainly appear so. After all, after death the physical body remains inert and eventually decomposes, while according to karma theory, the individual person has left the body and moved on to other realms.
However, what we are dealing with here is not simply a distinction between two realms of existence, material and spiritual, or between a body and a soul. The situation is more complex than that, for Hinduism recognizes several different layers or envelopes in the human constitution. There is the gross physical body, the subtle body, the causal body, and according to some teachers, the supracausal body as well. (Riviere 28-32; Muktananda (2), 86; Woodroffe (2), 54-58). Each of these bodies is more subtle than the preceding one. We experience the waking state in the gross body, the dream state in the subtle body, the dreamless sleep state in the causal body, and the turiya (enlightened) state in the supracausal body. The latter three (subtle, causal, and supracausal) all survive bodily death.
Now, the important point is that these various layers of the human constitution apparently all interact. Thus, physical disciplines such as yoga postures can be undertaken to purify channels and chakras that really are components of the subtle body; and meditation which is a subtle practice is nevertheless supposed to be good for physical health. So what you have is a more complex form of the traditional mind-body problem of Western philosophy: if the mind is not physical, how does it interact with the physical brain and body? Or if the subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies are not physical, how can they interact with the physical body?
Indeed, it is not really clear what it would mean to say that something exists and yet is not physical. One thinks of Bertrand Russell's "universals," but these don't seem to correspond well to the notion of an individual soul. Russell's universals are qualities that inhere in specific physical things, such as quantity, color, number, etc. but which can be treated of almost as if they had a quasi-independent, non-physical existence. Still, it seems awkward to say that a particular person's soul is an abstract quality like a number. Personalities seem to be more particular than that.
It is well to understand that the physical realm could contain many aspects that have not been discovered yet. Currently scientists are speculating that space may contain several higher dimensions that we cannot observe directly. The subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies might in fact reflect such dimensions. Thus, it would be premature to assume that these subtle aspects of the human constitution are not physical.
It is also worth pointing out that the scope of science is not limited to those things that we can observe directly. Many of the things that science studies (quarks, for example) are originally not seen directly, but instead are postulated to explain the behavior of other things. Some things, such as black holes, are postulated only because they follow as a consequence of the mathematics that describes other things.
Further, it should be noted that scientific instruments are now able to detect many things that are not apparent to our physical senses. X-ray film, optical telescopes and radio telescopes, microscopes, radar, and sonar are just some of the techniques by which science has transcended the limits of our own senses. You could look at them as examples of a type of extrasensory perception. Although these tools of perception are external to ourselves, the types of information they perceive could in principle be the same as psychics perceive with their psychic faculties. 
There does not seem to be anything logically incoherent in supposing that, at some future date, we might develop an instrument that can detect the subtle body. Such an instrument might even be able to view the subtle body as it leaves the physical body at the time of death. Perhaps we could even attach the equivalent of a radio tracking collar to the soul, so that we could monitor the progress of the soul until its next rebirth. Similarly, a new type of X-ray device could perhaps photograph the samskaras in our bodies, and diagnose the fruits that each are destined to bear.
Thus, I cannot see any a priori reason for supposing that the theory of karma cannot be studied by science. However, the practical situation at the moment is quite different. We don't appear to have the tools at present to measure the existence of a soul, assuming that such a thing really exists.
It is still possible that science could postulate a soul to explain the order underlying various experimental results. In fact, a few neuroscientists (notably Sir John Eccles) believe that brain studies support the probability that there is more to the "self" than our physical brain. Such appears to be a minority viewpoint among neuroscientists, however.
Yet as long as the mind/body problem has not been definitively solved, and as long as the functions of the brain are not understood in exact detail, there is going to be room for the concept of a soul. It does not follow from this that the soul is a truly scientific hypothesis, however. In order to be a scientific hypothesis, an idea has to have explanatory power; it has to find order in existing observations, and make distinctive and testable predictions about the results of future observations. We seem to be very far from developing any such scientific concept of the soul, much less of karma.

Conclusion
My study of karma and rebirth has yielded no certain results. However, in general the more closely I have looked into the topic, the less satisfied I have become with the whole theory. I have found that: 
•	The scriptures that expound the doctrine also assert other doctrines that we know to be untrue. 
•	The theory is described in traditional sources in a very incomplete manner, and the more you think about how the system could actually work, the more complex it becomes. 
Nevertheless, I do not mean to imply that the doctrine has no value. Nor do I doubt that many who created this belief system or teach it today are beings of great spiritual advancement; saints, if you will. The remarkable thing is that the state of enlightenment does not appear to give any particular privileged status with regard to knowledge. But that is a larger subject to be explored in a different paper.

Buddhist Views of Reincarnation
Questions Which Tend Not to Edification
Accordingly, Malunkyaputta, bear always in mind what it is that I have not explained, and what it is that I have explained. And what, Malunkyaputta, have I not explained? I have not explained, Malunkyaputta, that the world is eternal; I have not explained that the world is not eternal; I have not explained that the world is finite; I have not explained that the world is infinite; I have not explained that the soul and body are identical; I have not explained that the soul is one thing and the body another; I have not explained that the saint exists after death; I have not explained that the saint does not exist after death; I have not explained that the saint both exists and does not exist after death; I have not explained that the saint neither exists nor does not exist after death. And why, Malunkyaputta, have I not explained this? Because, Malunkyaputta, this profits not, nor has to do with the fundamentals of religion, nor tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence, the supernatural faculties, supreme wisdom, and Nirvana; therefore have I not explained it? 
And what, Malunkyaputta, have I explained? Misery, Malunkyaputta, have I explained; the origin of misery have I explained; the cessation of misery have I explained; and the path leading to the cessation of misery have I explained. And why, Malunkyaputta, have I explained this? Because, Malunkyaputta, this does profit, has to do with the fundamentals of religion, and tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence, knowledge, supreme wisdom, and Nirvana; therefore have I explained it. Accordingly, Malunkyaputta, bear always in mind what it is that I have not explained, and what it is that I have explained.
— Majhima-Nikaya, in The Portable World Bible 
Buddhist Cosmology
Metaphysical speculation is discouraged . . . but in practice Buddhists do share a set of common views about the universe — views derived from three sources. They are: (1) the cosmological and metaphysical beliefs of the Buddha's contemporaries; (2) relevant passages gleaned from the Buddha's own teaching and that of later generations of monks; (3) intuitions of the nature of reality which dawn on adepts during meditation. The following notions have almost the force of dogmas, though no Buddhist is compelled to subscribe to them. 
It is held that the universe is not the work of a supreme god— indeed, not a creation at all. Rather it is a delusion, part and parcel of the delusion which makes each being suppose that he has a separate ego, a genuine self-contained entity. This conviction leads to self-love, which serves in turn to solidify the ego-consciousness and immure us in the virtually endless round of birth and death known as Samsara. Thus we are governed by Avidya—primordial ignorance or delusion. . . 
Clinging to the false notion of its permanency, the wretched ego suffers successive rounds of death and rebirth, aeon upon aeon, during which it fashions its own rewards and retributions; every thought, word, and action produces karma, a force which brings results exactly consonant with their causes. Whatever tends to diminish the ego-illusion loosens the grip of karma; whatever strengthens it draws tight the bonds. None of the infinite number of states in Samsare is altogether satisfactory; progress lies not in trying by good works to achieve rebirth, say, among the gods; even the gods have dissatisfactions to put up with and, when their good karma is exhausted, they will have to descend to more painful states. The remedy lies in freeing oneself from Samsara forever by destroying the last shreds of egohood.
— John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet 
The Miseries of Rebirth
Looking for the maker of this tabernacle, I have run through the course of many births, not finding him; and painful is birth again and again. But now, maker of the tabernacle, thou hast been seen; thou shalt not make up this tabernacle again. All thy rafters are broken, thy ridge-pole is sundered; the mind, approaching the Eternal, has attained to the extinction of all desires.
— Dhammapada, in The Portable World Bible 
Now hear the dire results when one scorns my skillfulness and the Buddha-rules for ever fixed in the world. After having disappeared from amongst men, they shall dwell in the lowest hell during a whole kalpa, and thereafter they shall fall lower and lower, the fools, passing through repeated births for many intermediate kalpas. And when they have vanished from amongst the inhabitants of hell, they shall further descend to the condition of brutes, be even as dogs and jackals, and become a sport to others. 
And whenever they assume a human shape, they are born crippled, maimed, crooked, one-eyed, blind, dull, and low, they having no faith in my Sutra.
— The Lotus of the True Law, in The Portable World Bible 
The Enlightened One
Gautama Buddha speaks: With his heart thus serene, made pure, translucent, cultured, devoid of evil, supple, ready to act, firm and imperturbable, he [the saint] directs and bends down his mind to the knowledge of the memory of his previous temporary states. He recalls to his mind . . . one birth, or two or three . . . or a thousand or a hundred thousand births, through many an aeon of dissolution, many an aeon of both dissolution and evolution.
— Samannanphala Sutta, trans. T. W. Rhys Davids, in Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology 
Him I call a Brahamana who knows the mystery of death and rebirth of all beings, who is free from attachment, who is happy within himself and enlightened. . . . Him I call a Brahamana who knows his former lives, who knows heaven and hell, who has reached the end of births, who is a sage of perfect knowledge and who has accomplished all that has to be accomplished.
— The Dhammapada, in Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology 
What Reincarnates?
The profane generally imagine that Buddhists believe in the reincarnation of the soul and even in metempsychosis. This is erroneous. Buddhism teaches that the energy produced by the mental and physical activities of a being brings about the apparition of new mental and physical phenomena, when once this being has been dissolved by death. 
There exist a number of subtle theories upon this subject and the Tibetan mystics seem to have attained a deeper insight into the question than most other Buddhists. 
However, in Tibet as elsewhere, the views of the philosophers are only understood by the elite. The masses, although they profess the orthodox creed: "all aggregates are impermanent; no 'ego' exists in the person, nor in anything," remain attached to the more simple belief in an undefined entity traveling from world to world, assuming various forms. 
— Alexandra David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet 
Though the notion of an eternal soul free from the laws of transience and absence of own-being is rejected, it is recognized that the bundle of characteristics which constitutes a man's personality does persist—though of course in changing form—from life to life and aeon to aeon. Just as the middle-aged man has gradually developed out of the boy he has ceased to be, so has each of us developed from the being we used to be in our previous existence, bringing with us into this life many of the relatively long-term characteristics which determine our present circumstances and personality. Thus the Buddhist equivalent of the Christian concept of the soul is a continuum that changes from moment to moment, life to life, until the ego is negated and Nirvana won.
— John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet 
It is a mistake to attempt a final estimate of the views of either Buddha, Plato, Jesus, or any other teacher of religious philosophy, by means of a literal analysis of the printed record of what they taught. In the case of Buddha, there is reason to think that, like Jesus, he taught an inner, higher doctrine to his immediate disciples. What may be called "popular" Buddhism has generally been conceded to be preserved by the Southern or Ceylonese School, and it is from the scriptures of Southern Buddhism that Western scholars have gained the impression that Buddha denied the possibility of immortality. Rhys Davids, the Orientalist whose interpretations are best known to the West, has written: "There is no passage of a soul or I in any sense from the one life to the other." . . . Davids also concludes that "death, utter death," is the sequel to Nirvana. 
Edmund Holmes is convinced that this is a mutilation, a complete misreading, of Buddhist philosophy, and his chapter in The Creed of Buddha to correct the mistake seems a well-reasoned discussion of the central implication of Buddhist teachings. The Southern version, briefly, is that at death a man's tendencies and traits of character are resolved into psychic residues termed by the Buddhists Skandas, and that these are all that remain of the man who has died. The Skandhas (carriers of Karma) are then reborn in some other person or individual, but without any connecting link of continuing egoity. 
Northern Buddhism [the Buddhism of Tibet, China, and Japan], on the other hand, while exuberantly metaphysical in form, is said to have preserved the teaching given by Buddha to his arhats, or initiated disciples, and here one finds unmistakably taught the doctrine of a permanent identity which unites all the incarnations of a single individual. This latter is the view adopted by Holmes: "The question we have to ask ourselves with regard to the Buddhist conception is a simple one: Is the identity between me and the inheritor of my Karma . . . as real as the identity between the me of today and the me of 20 years hence . . . ? If it is not as real, the doctrine of reincarnation is pure nonsense."
— From an "essay on Buddha's thought contained in a translation of the Dhammapada published by the Cunningham Press," quoted in Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology.
What actually transmigrates from one life to another is the mind conditioned by karma, which determines its happiness, its suffering, and its abilities. What we are today — the different realms we have gone through and will go through — results from karma that conditions the projections of the mind and thereby forms its illusions.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha 
Karma and Causality
Fundamental consciousness can be compared to a ground that receive imprints or seeds left by our actions. Once planted, these seeds remain in the ground of fundamental consciousness until the conditions for their germination and ripening have come together. . . The linking of the different steps of this process, from the causes, the initial acts, up to their consequences, present and future experiences, is called karma, or causation of actions.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha
The impetus which impels a sentient being to pass from round to round of birth and death is provided by karmic force. Acts of body, speech and mind produce internal and external results which, in combination with the fruits of other acts, become the causes of further and yet further results many of which involve the doer. Thus karma (causatory energy) leads to chains of action and reaction extending from life to life and governing the circumstances of each. Belief in the action of karma must not be confused with a kismet-like fatalism. Though we are bound to reap all we sow, we are free to sow new seed that will bear good fruit. Moreover, with the gradual negation of the ego, karma's hold is loosened. 
The karmic process is intricate. A criminal, for example, incurs more than legal punishment or terror of discovery; the results of his crime affect his personality either by coarsening it or by afflicting him with remorse; that coarsening or affliction will in turn produce results; and those results, yet others. Thus, whether or not legal punishment follows, the consequences of wrongdoing are severe. Whereas a Christian may hope that his piety and good works will be accepted as atonement, a Buddhist, knowing that his severest judge, gaoler and executioner are himself and that sentence by this judge is mandatory, understands that virtue and evil never cancel out each other, that he will harvest and consume the fruits of each. On the other hand, in the Buddhist view, evil is not sin but ignorance (for no one able to foresee all the karmic consequences of an evil deed could bring himself to err). Hence the remedy is the wisdom which tends to diminution of the ego and to a weakening of karmic force.
— John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet
The Negative Acts and Positive Acts
According to Kalu Rinpoche, in Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha, the main negative acts are as follows: 
•	Negative acts of body: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct 
•	Negative acts of speech: lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, idle chatter 
•	Negative acts of mind: covetousness, ill will (wishing harm to another), or wrong view (conceptions that discredit the law of karma or other teachings of the Dharma) 
The positive acts are the opposite of each of these types of negative acts; for example, protecting life rather than killing, and so on.
Factors Affecting the Strength of Karmas
So, the strength of a karma depends on the intention to do it, the action itself, its completion, and the feeling it causes afterward.
For example, the karmic power and the results of the action of killing would be strongest with several factors coming together: the spiritual quality of the victim, the intention of committing the action, the premeditation of the murder, the attempt to murder, the action killing, the resulting death, the satisfaction that it was accomplished, and the contentment of having killed. The presence of all of these elements gives the karma maximum power; when one, two, or three of these elements are missing, the karma's intensity and consequences are diminished correspondingly.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha
The Different Types of Results of Actions
The different negative or positive acts have four main types of results called dominant or maturation results, results corresponding to the initial act, results corresponding to the initial experience, and governing results.
The dominant or maturation result is the first and strongest result of an action; it consists of taking rebirth in a realm corresponding to the nature of that act. So, the maturation result of the act of killing is rebirth in a hell realm . . .
Results corresponding to the initial act consist in a predisposition to commit other similar acts . . .
Results corresponding to the initial experience consist of a tendency to experience situations in which we are subjected to what our own previous victim experienced. In other words, we ourselves may become the object of similar acts committed by others . . .
Environmental results condition the outer environment in which we take birth. Thus, for example, killing creates an outer world of dangerous precipices and abysses.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha
Karma and Freedom
It is very important to understand clearly that although karma conditions our experiences and actions, we still enjoy a certain measure of freedom — which could be called free will in the West — which is always present in us in various proportions. At every turn we find ourselves at a crossroads: one way leads to happiness and enlightenment, the other to unhappiness and suffering. We are continually confronted with a choice: the right choice generates karma favorable to positive development, which a bad choice produces negative karma, the cause for unhappiness in the future. The choice is ours, but the consequences are unavoidable.
This freedom or free will is possible because, in the midst of samsara, despite its conditioned nature, we always have a degree of direct awareness and authentic experience. Our mind and its experiences participate simultaneously in the conditionings of ignorance and in the freedom of direct awareness.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha 
Merit and Its Transfer
The fruits of good thoughts, words and deeds are collectively known as merit. Merit, like the fruits of bad karma, persists for a long time; stocks of it can be built up and expended by an act of will in two ways: (1) to ameliorate our present circumstances and/or to ensure rebirth into a relatively pleasant situation; (2) to loosen Samsara's bonds and advance us towards Liberation. 
Since nothing is predestined and, despite karma, there is wide scope for the play of free will, it follows that we have some degree of choice as to whether the merit will be expended frivolously on a pleasant rebirth or wisely on securing a birth conducive to the pursuit of Liberation. (Some Buddhists, thinking of Liberation as something immeasurably far off, prefer agreeable mundane results that will be more immediate.) 
The notion that an act of will can affect the fruits of merit is carried further. It is believed that stocks of merit can be transferred to other beings. In Theravadin countries, young men often take temporary monastic vows as a means of building up merit for their parents. Vajrayana followers daily renew an act of will transferring their merit to sentient beings in general. The hoarding of merit for oneself is acceptable conduct among the Theravadins, but Mahayanists consider it ignoble. Whether or not it is really possible to transfer merit, forming an intention to do so is salutary, for all unselfish thoughts naturally lead to a corresponding diminution of the ego. Unfortunately, this reflection makes it difficult to be sincerely generous; for, at the moment of offering merit (or anything else) to others, one may be conscious of doing oneself a good turn! 
— John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet 
Bodhisattvas
The term "Bodhisattva" may also mean an Enlightened Being . . . For Mahayanists it has the special sense of Enlightened Beings who renounce Nirvana's bliss in order to remain in the universe and aid the liberation of their fellow beings. Pious Mahayanists often take a solemn vow to seek Bodhisattvahood, thus dedicating themselves long in advance of their Enlightenment to the service of others; Theravadins, however, deny that such a choice is possible, holding that once the karmic accretions have been burnt up with the false ego, nothing remains to be reborn as a Bodhisattva or in any other form. 
— John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet 
The Bardo or After-Death Journey
The beliefs of the learned lamas and of contemporary mystics differ greatly from those held by the masses about the fate of the "spirit" in the next world. 
To begin with, they consider all the incidents of the journey in the Bardo as purely subjective visions. The nature of these visions depends on the ideas the man has held when he was living. The various paradises, the hells and the Judge of the Dead appear to those who have believed in them. 
— Alexandra David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet 
I said that—according to the Tibetans—a mystic initiate is capable of keeping his mind lucid during the disintegration of his personality, and that it is possible to him to pass from this world to the next fully conscious of what is happening. It follows that such a man does not need the help of anyone in his last hours, nor any religious rites after his death. 
But this is not the case for ordinary mortals . . . 
Lamaism does not abandon these ignorants to themselves. While they are dying, and after they are dead, a lama teaches them that which they have not learned while they were alive. He explains to them the nature of the beings and things which appear on their way; he reassures them, and, above all, he never ceases guiding them in the right direction. 
The lama who is assisting a dying man is careful to prevent him from falling asleep, or from fainting or falling into a coma. He points out the successive departure of the special "consciousness" attached to each sense . . . That is to say he calls attention to the gradual loss of sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. 
Then, the task of the lama is to make the "spirit" spring out of its envelope through the top of the head; for if it leaves by any other road, the future well-being of the man will be greatly jeopardized. 
This extraction of the "spirit" is produced by the ritualistic cry of Hik! followed by Phat! Before uttering the cry, the lama must concentrate his thoughts and identify himself with the man who has just died. He must make the effort which the man himself ought to have made, to cause the "spirit" to ascend to the summit of the skull with sufficient force to produce the fissure through which it can escape. 
Initiates who are capable of making the "spirit" rise for themselves, utter the liberating cry of Hik! and Phat! when they feel their end approaching, and so free themselves without help. 
They are also able to commit suicide in this way and it is said that certain mystics have done so. 
The disembodied "spirit" then begins a strange pilgrimage. The popular belief is that a journey really takes place through lands that really exist and are peopled with real beings. But the more learned Lamaists consider the journey as a series of subjective visions, a dream that the "spirit" himself weaves under the influence of his character and his past actions. 
Certain Lamaists assert that, immediately after the "spirit" has been disincarnated, it has a intuition, fugitive as a streak of lightning, of the Supreme Reality. If it can seize this light, it is definitely set free from the "round" of successive births and deaths. It has reached the state of nirvana. 
This is rarely the case. Generally the "spirit" is dazzled by this sudden light. He shrinks from it, pulled backward by his false conceptions, his attachment to individual existence and to the pleasure of the senses. Or else, the significance of what he has seen escapes him, just as a man, absorbed by his preoccupations, will fail to notice what is going on around him . . . 
During the celebration of these various ceremonies, the "spirit" travels through the Bardo. 
He beholds, in turn, radiant beautiful beings and hideous forms. He sees diversely coloured paths and a crowd of strange visions. These apparitions frighten him, he is bewildered and wanders at random among them. 
If he is able to hear and follow the advices of the officiating lama, he can take a road that will lead him to be reborn among the gods, or in some other pleasant condition—just as the initiate may, who has entered consciously into the Bardo after a careful study of its "map." 
But men who have not learned anything about the Bardo, and who enter it while absorbed in their regret at leaving the material world, can hardly profit by the counsels given to them. 
So they miss the opportunity of escaping the mathematically rigid consequences of their actions. The roads to celestial happiness are behind them. The wombs of human and of animal beings are offered them and, deceived by these hallucinations, they fancy these to be pleasant grottoes or palaces. Thinking they will find an agreeable resting-place, they enter one or another of them and thus determine for themselves the conditions of their rebirth. This one will become a dog, while another will be the son of distinguished parents. 
According to other beliefs, the great mass of people who have not obtained post-mortem spiritual illumination, by seizing the meaning of the vision which arose before them immediately after death, travel like a frightened flock of sheep through the phantasmagoria of Bardo, until they reach the court of Shinje, the Judge of the Dead. 
Shinje examines their past actions in a mirror or weighs them under the form of black and white pebbles. According to the predominance of good or of evil deeds, he determines the species of beings among whom the "spirit" will be reborn and the particular circumstances that accompany this rebirth, such as physical beauty or ugliness, intellectual gifts, social standing of the parents, etc. 
— Alexandra David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet 
Propelling and Completing Karma
Among the various types of karma, we can further distinguish propelling karma and completing karma. Propelling karma, as its name suggests, propels one into a state of existence, whatever that may be. Completing karma determines the specific circumstances within that state of existence; it fills in the bqaasic outline produced by the propelling karma. These two types of karma can combine so that, for example, if the karma propelling a certain mode of existence were positive and the completing karma that fills in the particulars were negative, we may take birth in a higher state of consciousness, but we would experience unpleasant circumstances in that lifetime.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha
The Six Realms
Qualitatively, each of the six mental afflictions engenders a certain type of birth: hatred leads to a hell realm, greed to a hungry ghost realm, stupidity to an animal realm, desirous attachment to the human condition, jeaousy to the jealous god realm, and pride to the divine states . . . So, a lot of negative karma generates a hell realm; a little less negative karma, the hungry ghost realm; and less than that, an animal realm . . .
THE HELL REALM . . . In these infernal states, we are relentlessly tormented by inconceivable suffering: we are killed, and in some hell realms we experience being killed over and over; we are tortured by extreme heat or cold. And there is no freedom nor any possibility to dedicate ourselves to spiritual practice.
THE HUNGRY GHOST REALM . . . In this state, we can never get what we want, nor can we enjoy food or drink, which we desperately crave as hungry ghosts. We are always lacking and wanting, yet completely unable to fulfill our desires, and we suffer from hunger, thirst, and constant intense frustrations.
THE ANIMAL REALM . . . All of them experience different forms of suffering, such as being eaten alive, struggling against one another, or being subservient and abused . . . it is very difficult to awaken love and compassion and impossible to practice Dharma.
THE HUMAN REALM . . . Humans are practically the only beings endowed with the necessary conditions for spiritual progress, as well as the faculties that allow the practice and understanding of Dharma. However, being human does not guarantee spiritual progress . . . the human condition still has many types of suffering, the four main kinds being birth, illness, aging, and death.
THE JEALOUS GOD REALM . . .This is a happy state endowed with many powers and pleasures, but, because of the force of jealousy, there are constant struggles and conflicts. Jealous gods oppose gods who are their superiors and quarrel among themselves.
THE DIVINE REALM . . .There are different levels of divine existence. The first are the divine states of the desire realm, so called because mind in those realms is still subject to desires and attachment . . . Beyond the desire realm, there is the subtle-form realm, which includes a hierarchy of seventeen successive divine levels . . . Finally, beyond even these . . . there can be birth in the formless realm.
— Kalu Rinpoche, Luminous Mind: The Way of the Buddha
Tulkus or Divine Emanations
Tulkus occupy a prominent place in Lamaism, they constitute one of its most striking features which set it quite apart from all other Buddhist sects . . . 
According to popular belief, a tulku is either the reincarnation of a saintly or peculiarly learned departed personality, or the incarnation of a non-human entity. 
The number of the former greatly exceeds the latter. Tulkus of non-human entities are limited to a few avatars of mystic Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or deities, such as the Dalai Lama, the Grand Lama of Tashilunpo, the Lady Dorje Phagmo and, lower in rank, the tulkus of some autochthonous gods like Pekar . . . 
Some lamas think that the subsisting subtile energy attracts elements of congenial essence and thus becomes the nucleus of a new being. Others say that the disembodied force joins an already existing being, whose material and mental dispositions, acquired in previous lives, provide a harmonious union . . . 
More learned lamaists hold another view regarding the nature of the tulkus. That is, in fact, the only truly orthodox one, which fully agrees with the very meaning of the term tulku. 
The word tulku means a form created by magic, and in accordance with that definition, we must consider the tulkus as phantom bodies, occult emanations, puppets constructed by a magician to serve his purpose . . . 
The tulkus of mystic entities co-exist with their spiritual parent. For example, while the Dalai Lama, who is Chenrezigs' tulku, lives at Lhasa, Chenrezigs himself—so Tibetans believe—dwells in Nankai Potala, an island near the Chinese coast . . . 
As a rule, it is about two years after the death of a lama tulku that the treasurer, head steward or other clerical officials or his household, begin to look for his reincarnation . . . 
If the late lama left directions regarding his rebirth, his monks pursue their researches accordingly; if such directions are lacking, they resort to a lama tulku astrologer who points out generally in veiled and obscure sentences the country where investigations must be made and various signs by which the child may be known . . . 
When a child is discovered who nearly answers the prescribed conditions, a lama clairvoyant is again consulted, and if he pronounces in favor of the child the following test is applied. 
A number of articles such as rosaries, ritualistic implements, books, tea-cups, etc., are placed together, and the child must pick out those which belonged to the late tulku, thus showing that he recognizes the things that were his in a previous life. 
It sometimes happens when several children are candidates to a vacant tulku seat, that equally convincing signs have been noticed concerning each of them, and they all correctly pick out the objects owned by the defunct lama. Or it sometimes occurs that two or three clairvoyants disagree among themselves as to which is the authentic tulku. 
Such cases are rather frequent when it is a question of succeeding to one of these grand tulkus, lords of big monasteries and large estates. Then many families are eager to place one of their sons on the throne of the departed grandee, which brings with it consideration and material profit. 
— Alexandra David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet
What continues in a tulku? Is the tulku exactly the same person as the figure he reincarnates? He both is and he isn't. His motivation and dedication to help all beings is the same, but he is not actually the same person. What continues from life to life is a blessing, what a Christian would call "grace." The transmission of a blessing and grace is exactly tuned and appropriate to each succeeding age, and the incarnation appears in a way potentially best suited to the karma of the people of his time, to be able most completely to help them.
— Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying
Tulku is a word with many levels of meaning in Tibetan, but usually it refers to a being of extraordinary spiritual attainment who has intentionally taken a specific rebirth in order to benefit others. Before birth the tulku directs his or her consciousness toward the union of specific parents so that the circumstances of birth and upbringing will be an auspicious beginning for spiritual activity.
— Chagdud Tulku, Lord of the Dance
Despite my being a tulku—or perhaps because of it—I was a terror as a child. Tibetans sometimes say that tulkus are wild and willful as children, but that this same energy propels them toward spiritual accomplishment if it is properly harnessed. To this high purpose, Tibetans spare no effort with the rod.
— Chagdud Tulku, Lord of the Dance
Some of the history of Chagdud Gonpa and the Chagdud incarnations I had heard before, some I learned from the monks who escorted me through Nyagrong, some were spontaneously revealed within my mind.
— Chagdud Tulku, Lord of the Dance

Taoist Views on Karma
Taoism is one of the main religious traditions of Chinese origin, and its primary text, the Tao te Ching by Lao Tzu, one of the most widely translated books in human history. Among the facets of the Taoist tradition is an interest in fostering longevity or even immortality, whether that is understood to be a physical immortality or something more subtle. I am not prepared to explore the full scope of Taoist views on the afterlife at this time, but I do want to share some information on a particular Taoist text that I recently ran across, because it presents a novel doctrine of something like karma.
It is possible that this text should be thought of as representing traditional Chinese popular religion rather than Taoism per se. I won't attempt to address that question here, but present the text simply as a traditional doctrine that has points of interest.
Karma Without Rebirth: The Thai-Shang Tractate of Actions and Their Retributions
The Texts of Taoism, Part II, translated by James Legge, includes a short text called the Thai-Shang Tractate of Actions and Their Retributions, which describes a Taoist concept of something very like karma. Thus, the text says:
1. There are no special doors for calamity and happiness (in men's lot); they come as men themselves call them. Their recompenses follow good and evil as the shadow follows the substance.
So far, this sounds much like the Hindu and Buddhist views of karma. The key difference is that no concept of rebirth is involved. Therefore, the recompense for actions works as follows:
2. Accordingly, in heaven and earth there are spirits that take account of men's transgressions, and, according to the lightness or gravity of their offenses, take away from their term of life. When that term is curtailed, men become poor and reduced, and meet with many sorrows and afflictions. All (other) men hate them; punishments and calamities attend them; good luck and occasions for felicitation shun them; evil stars send down misfortune on them. When their term of life is exhausted they die.
There also are the Spirit-rulers in the three pairs of the Thai stars of the Northern Bushel over men's heads, which record their acts of guilt and wickedness, and take away (from their term of life) periods of twelve years or of a hundred days.
There also are the three Spirits of the recumbent body which reside within a man's person. As each kang-shan day comes round, they forthwith ascend to the court of Heaven, and report men's deeds of guilt and transgression. On the last day of the moon, the spirit of the Hearth does the same.
In the case of every man's transgressions, when they are great, twelve years are taken from his term of life; when they are small, a hundred days.
Note that the Chinese mind, perhaps in some respects less abstract than the Hindu, immediately makes some effort to articulate the mechanism that causes deeds to be rewarded or punished. Actually, the text seems to give too many such explanations; citing both spirits "in heaven and earth," spirits in one of the stellar constellations, and three spirits that reside "within a man's person." Thus a multitude of intelligent agents are provided to do the record-keeping. Another aspect, however, is passed over just as cryptically as in Hindu thought: what agency actually causes the reward or punishment to occur, and how is it reconciled with the other factors that appear to motivate people's actions?
For example, consider the following statement:
5. [...] Further, those who wrongfully kill men are (only) putting their weapons into the hands of others who will in their turn kill them.
Thus if a murderer is himself later murdered by another person, we must suppose that some celestial moral principle guided or contributed to this second murder. Such an influence would have to be rather subtle and indirect, or else Providence could be accused of inciting the second murderer to an evil action he would not otherwise have performed, with a resulting implication that he should not be held completely accountable for his actions. It seems unlikely that the author of the Thai-Shang Tractate would be happy with such an conclusion.
According to the Thai-Shang Tractate, the reward or punishment for actions is meted out primarily in this same lifetime where the actions were performed. In case this is not sufficient, 
4. [...] If at death there remains guilt unpunished, judgment extends to his posterity.
5. Moreover, when parties by wrong and violence take the money of others, an account is taken, and set against its amount, of their wives and children, and all the members of their families, when these gradually die. If they do not die, there are the disasters from water, fire, thieves, robbers, from losses of property, illnesses, and (evil) tongues to balance the value of their wicked appropriations. 
One may ask how guilt may remain unpunished at the time of a person's death. Presumably this would be the case if a person commits a crime toward the end of his already allotted lifespan. 
A more serious concern is how a morally motivated system could punish a man's descendants for his crimes; in what sense do they partake of his guilt? It is well to remember that, in ancient times, the bond between ancestor and descendant was taken much more seriously than it is in the West today. Thus, the Biblical Yahweh offered Abraham first, not salvation of his soul, but a multitude of descendants; and on occasion, punished the descendants of a transgressor even unto the seventh generation. Offerings to ancestors also play a major role in ancient Chinese and Egyptian religion, not to mention in modern Hispanic folk Catholicism, and the ancestors become deities in West African and Hawaiian beliefs. From a motivational point of view, the threat to punish one's descendants simply provides an additional reason to do good, just as holding a person's children hostage will motivate a parent to pay a ransom.
As in Buddhism and Christianity, the system assigns a moral status to thoughts and words as well as more concrete actions:
5. [...] Therefore the good man speaks what is good, contemplates what is good, and does what is good; every day he has these three virtues: —at the end of three years Heaven is sure to send down blessing on him. The bad man speaks what is wicked, contemplates what is wicked, and does what is wicked every day he has these three vices: —at the end of three years, Heaven is sure to send down misery on him. —How is it that men will not exert themselves to do what is good?
The question may then arise, "I have already done so many bad things that many punishments are stored up against me; so why should I bother to change my ways now?" As if to provide moral motivation even for such depraved souls, the text assures us that there is hope for those who have done evil in the past.
5. [...] If one have, indeed, done deeds of wickedness, but afterwards alters his way and repents, resolved not to do anything wicked, but to practice reverently all that is good, he is sure in the long-run to obtain good fortune: —this is called changing calamity into blessing. 
We have seen how the Thai-Shang Tractate achieves a system of moral recompense without recourse to a theory of future births. However, there is another dimension of Hindu/Buddhist karma theory that is also omitted, and that is the dimension of previous births. And it is that dimension that gives karma theory one of its main attractions, as well as one of its major drawbacks. For by postulating previous births, karma theory is able to conclude that all the pleasant and unpleasant circumstances of this life are the result of past actions, and thus morally justified. This would include circumstances such as childhood disease or birth into a poor family, which cannot be explained as moral recompense for actions in this life. It is this feature that supposedly saves Providence from the charge of being unfair. The downside is that such a view of karmic predestination can lead to a fatalistic resignation to one's lot, which is scarcely calculated to help people to better their circumstances.
Another difference to the Thai-Shang Tractate view is that is seems at least slightly more testable than other religious views that postpone moral reward and punishment to a future life. You can imagine studies that would attempt to determine statistically whether people who do good achieve longer life than people who do evil. One difficulty in conducting such a study is that people tend to hide their evil actions. Still, there are instances of evil being conducted in public on a mass scale, as in the case of ruthless dictators, slave owners, witch hunters, and so on. It would not be surprising if such people average a shorter or less happy lifespan than most, but one suspects that the tendency is only a statistical average rather than an infallible justice, and that it can be accounted for by more mundane means than the intervention of spirits.
The Texts of Taoism, by James Legge, are available from Amazon.com in two volumes inexpensive paperback editions. For further information, go to The Texts of Taoism, Volume 1 at http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0486209903/lumiereA/ or The Texts of Taoism, Volume 2 at http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0486209911/lumiereA/.
A Sufi View of Rebirth: Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
Sufism has been loosely defined as the mystical tradition within Islam (in the sense that, for example, Yoga is a mystical tradition within Hinduism). Actually, there are endless debates about how to define Sufism, as some teachers present themselves as firmly within the framework of Islam, while others regard themselves as teaching a sort of transcendent mysticism that underlies and gives meaning to all religions. (Those with a general interest in Sufism should refer to the links at the end of this article.)
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen was a Sufi master from Sri Lanka who came to America and taught here for about a decade and a half before his death in 1986. I encountered his work recently for the first time and have been struck by both the divine atmosphere that suffuses his photos and writings, and by the unusual perspective his teachings give on the core experience of mysticism. One of the surprises was that his teaching on the afterlife embraces a limited doctrine of rebirth that I have never heard associated with Islam; and this despite the fact that Bawa seems to have operated firmly within traditional Islamic belief and practice. (For example, the recent book The Illuminated Prayer by Michael Green and Coleman Barks relates that Bawa taught the five-times-daily prayer discipline of Islam to his Western students; though his primary teaching was that we should practice dhikr, the remembrance of Allah, at all times and not just while praying or meditating formally.)
A resume of Bawa's teachings on the afterlife might shed some light on what is essential or universal among mystics, and what is incidental and perhaps not so universal. I am going to present a number of quotations, primarily from a book by Bawa Muhaiyaddeen called To Die Before Death: The Sufi Way of Life. Nevertheless, I can't claim to have fully captured or understood his teachings on the subject. The book is a collection of short speeches and question and answer sessions, and while certain ideas are repeated throughout, there is never a systematic presentation. Bawa spoke more like a poet than a scientist, with the end of making people experience the truth rather than just understanding it intellectually. Sometimes he answered questions in indirect ways, and sometimes he appeared to evade the question altogether. Some of his beliefs strike me as quite frightening, but he presented his understanding of the truth with a sweetness that I have rarely encountered.
Arrival of the Soul
Regarding the pre-existence of the soul, Bawa has this to say:
My child, what is called the ruh, the soul, is a ray of light that came from God. In the kingdom of the ruh, the souls exist as rays, as magnetic powers. Those rays were dispersed by God and scattered all over, filling all places in creation. They fell upon seven different places—upon earth, fire, water, air, and ether, and upon the light and the plenitude. Those rays, which were constantly in motion, became the countless lives of creation. What kind of life each ray became was determined by where it fell, which energy it fell upon. The rays that fell on the earth became earth lives, and those that fell on fire became fire lives. In the same way, water lives, air lives, and ether lives (lives of illusion) were created.
The rays that fell into the realm of wisdom, into God’s kingdom, became the sixth form of life, the light life, the human soul. That soul sees only the One who is God. The rays that returned to Him became the seventh form, the light of plenitude or completeness. Those souls which fell back into God were the 124,000 prophets and the qutubs.
[...]
The ruhani is different. A man may look like a man, but depending upon where his ray originally fell, he may have, impressed within him, the qualities of a monkey or a lion or some other animal. If the ray fell into water, the qualities of water will be impressed upon him. If it fell into fire, he will have fire qualities, as the jinns do. If it fell into air, the qualities of the angels will be within him. If it fell inside of maya, then the qualities of darkness will enter him. If it fell on earth, he will be filled with many millions of thoughts and qualities, dirt and stench, mud, gold, silver, mercury, copper, lead, oil, and the many colors found in stagnant water. So many qualities will come into the person from wherever his soul fell.
These qualities and the actions that result from them are called ruhanis. Whatever a person gives life to within himself—each thought, each mantra, each elemental miracle or magic, whatever he brings to life using the angels of earth, fire, water, air, and ether or maya—these become ruhanis. They are in opposition to the ruh, the pure soul.
[My thanks to Howard Posner for supplying the dialog from which the preceding quotation is taken.]
The soul arrives in the unborn infant in stages which are completed by the third month:
In the first month, on the third day after conception, that power known as anma, the essence of the elements, joins with the embryo. Then the embryo starts to move. In the second month, the avi enters into this. That is the pure spirit, or vapor. By the end of the third month the soul is sent within that pure spirit and the embryo's movement increases. Within ninety days, slowly the pure spirit pushes the soul in from above and live becomes evident in the fetus. 
Rebirths in This Very Life
In one of his discouses, Bawa makes rebirth sound like a metaphor for the psychological changes we go through during our lifetime:
It is while you are living in this world, in this very birth, that you undergo all these rebirths - about 105 million rebirths. Every day, you are being reborn. Every new quality is indeed a rebirth . . . Look at a person's face, for example . . . The heart and the face reveal the person's state, whether it be happiness, sorrow, anger, vengeance, and all the other states that a person experiences. Each of these is a form that a person has taken at a particular time. In this way, without his even being aware of it, the person is reborn in different forms within his lifetime. (p. 115)
However, his other discourses seem to indicate that he believed in a literal rebirth after death as well.
Free Will and Destiny
Bawa says that we are not predestined to Heaven or Hell:
My children, it is we who prepare either heaven or hell for ourselves. Our destiny is written with our own hands, then handed over to God, and he gives the judgment. (p. 21)
Whenever you ask for forgiveness, instantly He will forgive you . . . If He had already written your destiny, he would not grant these things . . . Further, if God had already written your destiny, there would be no need to pray. Prayer has been reserved for you, so there is no such thing as predestination. (p.22)
However, there is a particular lifespan that has been allotted for us:
When the allotted amount of food, water, fire, air, and ether for each man is over, he is called back by 'Izra'il, the Angel of Death. This is called his destiny (nasib). (p. 126) 
People who die before their ordained time, whether they die in an accident, commit suicide, or are murdered, will roam in the form of ghosts and demons until their destined time comes. Then they are taken by the Angel of Death to be judged. (p. 145)
State Shortly After Death
Bawa says that our awareness remains in the body for some time after death:
The soul will remain with you until you are placed in the grave. Until your soul departs, everything you experienced before, all the singing and dancing, all the shouting and drinking, all the attachments to your relatives will be seen by your eyes and heard by your ears, but it will be as though you were under anesthesia. You will not be able to talk or move, but you will be aware of everything. Before an operation, you are given anesthesia so you will not be conscious of the pain, but your body remains aware of what is being done to it. In the same way, you cannot speak or shout, you cannot move, you cannot do anything, but an awareness within your body knows what is happening. Until you are placed in the grave and covered with earth and everyone has taken seven steps away, you will know everything. (p. 86)
The Questioning in the Grave
Then a questioning takes place in the grave:
Then he sits up and the two angels, Munkar and Nakir, ask him questions. "Who are you? What did you do? Whose son are you? What are the things that you have done?" . . . So the two angels will ask every organ - eyes, nose, ears, teeth, hands, legs - and inquire into the faults committed by each of them individually . . . Then the person in the grave is asked to write what the eyes did. There is no paper to write on, so the white burial shroud is used as paper. The forefinger is the writing finger . . . You are told, "You have your own ink to write with. That is your saliva." . . . As soon as everything is written, your qiyamah (reckoning) is finished. (p. 164-165).
During this questioning, one has a form symbolizing one's tendencies:
When death comes, our form will change. It will be made up of our qualities. If our qualities in the world were like those of a pig, we will take the form of a pig . . . It is of those forms that the questions will be asked. (p. 44)
When we are raised up, will rise up in the form that we have assumed through our properties. They will say, "Write!" . . . When you are raised up tommorow, you will have to go in the form that you have assumed, and then the judgment will come. (p. 46)
The Importance of Burial
Bawa taught that is is important to be buried rather than cremated, to repay the debt we owe to the earth because God made use of it to create us. It is imporant to avoid cremation:
Satan will forever try to trick us. Even at the final stage of our lives, he will try to have our body cremated so that we will burn in fire and not repay our debt . . . God said, "I will forgive whoever pays back that final debt, that trust which I owe to earth. But whoever does not pay that debt will be punished, and I will send him to the fire of hell. (p. 134)
Additionally, Bawa said that the body should not be in a casket or a vault shielded from the earth.
The earth, the body, must touch the earth. That is the correct way. (p. 138)
Rebirths in Lower Forms
According to Bawa, we only have one life as a complete human being. If we fail to realize God, we are reborn as beings who look human but who lack the potential for full God-realization. After that, we are reborn in animal forms, and if we fail at each level, are reborn at a lower level.
The point is you should do the work while you are still here. You should do it in this very lifetime. (pp. 111-112)
This is the human birth, in which we have divine analytic wisdom., the sixth state of consciousness. This wisdom enables us to discriminate between what is right and what is wrong . . . If a human life dies and is reborn, even once, its value decreases. The sixth level of consciousness and the ability to discriminate is reduced, and in the next birth one will have five levels of consciousness. (p. 108)
Thus, if one misses the opportunity to realize God in this birth and dies, he will be reborn with only five levels of consciousness. But even so, he must try and make the most of that. Then he will at least receive a station worthy of that level. He will be born seven times with five levels of consciousness and a human face . . . He will be born seven times at this fourth level, and if he does not achieve the maximum attainment of that level, he will be reborn with only three levels of consciousness. He will be born seven times at this level, and if he does not live up to that state, then he will be born with only two levels of consciousness. After that, he will be born with only one level of consciousness. In that birth, he should at least attain the position given to one who is at the first level of consciousness. If he does, then he will be born as either a tree, shrub, grass, bulb, or flower. (pp. 109-110)
If you miss the opportunity in this birth, you may have six more lives, but only your face will be of human form. The rest of you will be like a monkey or a donkey. It is only in this birth that you are a true human being. (pp. 113)
When you pass by me and I look within you, I may see something with four legs, I may see a snake, I may see a lion, a tiger, a demon, a cow, a horse, a donkey, or a crab. When I look inside, I will know this. I see this. (pp. 113)
That is why it is said that if we miss our chance in this birth, we will have given up our human form and be subject to many different forms and many different births. This is what the wise men were talking about. (pp. 117-118)
Punishment in the Grave
According to one of Bawa's statements, you remain in the grave receiving punishment until the final Judgment Day:
Your cycle on earth is finished, and you have to wait until the final Judgment Day in this grave. Until that day, you will be given punishment in the grave according to what you have done. The angels will come, snakes will come, scorpions will come, and you will receive lashes for everything you did. (p. 165)
I'm not sure how to reconcile this with his idea of rebirth in lower forms. Perhaps he means that, after your final birth, you remain in your grave until Judgment Day. 
Heaven
But those who have realized God in this lifetime do not linger in the grave:
If one has made the world die within him while in this world itself, then as soon as he is placed in the grave and the mourners walk seven steps away, he is brought back to life immediately, and that moment becomes his day of reckoning. The inquiry is immediate. When they wake him in the grave, his light and beauty and the treasure he acquired from Allah will be revealed. he is given eternal life and is taken immediately from the grave. (p. 158)
When that day comes, such a person will no longer be in the grave. He will be in heaven, because any place he is will be heaven. He has no death. Wherever he lives, it will be a palace. On the earth he lives in a palace, and in heaven he lives in a palace. When he is buried, he is in a palace. He has a palace on the outside and one on the inside. (p. 117)
Mankind is divided into seventy-three groups. Out of these only one group goes directly to barzakhul-'alam without having to face any questions. These are people who have no attachment. They have died while still in the world, while still alive. (p. 172)
The glossary to the book describes barzakhul-'alam as
That sphere or realm between this world and the hereafter . . . That place is in the heart (qalb). The soul resides there and is concealed . . . The place where the soul is contained in the body between the time of death and the time it is raised from the grave is known as barzakhul-'alam. (p. 240)
We create our heaven through our own actions:
What is heaven? Heaven is what we take with us. What is goodness? Goodness is what we take with us. For every small act of goodness that we take with us, one thousand or even ten thousand beautiful things will be spread out before us there. A single good act is made into so many thousands of acts of goodness . . . Heaven is the place where all our good actions and good thoughts have been multiplied thousands and tens of thousands of times and reserved for us. (p. 116)
A person's good qualities and good thoughts will become the celestial beings who will later perform service to him in the hereafter, and their appearance will be that of innocent children. Even while in this world, his qualities must perform service to him. If he serves the people in the world with his good qualities, those same good qualities will serve him in the hereafter. (p. 156)
The Final Judgment
In addition to the judgment in the grave, there is a later, final judgment that affects everyone:
On the Day of Questioning (Qiyamah), the trumpet will be blown by Israfil, the angel of air, and everyone will be woken up. When that air is blown by Israfil, the person will rise up in the specific form that he was reborn in according to the changes in his qualities and actions in this world. It is only then that this new form is revealed. He may have the form of a dog, a cat, or a rat, or some other being, and it is in this form that he will finally be asked questions and have to account for his actions. (p. 116)
Hell
Bawa had some extremely bad news for us in the hell department:
I did see hell with my own eyes. When I was flying over, I could see each one of the seven hells. Finally, I saw the fire of hell. I also saw the different beings who had fallen into hell. They no longer looked like human beings, but had the appearance of dogs and various other animals, with their tongues and noses either missing or crushed . . . Even now, when I think of it, I shudder with fear.
There is such a thing called hell. However, it is the hell that exists within us that God shows us on the outside. If we have overcome it here, then we will overcome it there. Those who have not overcome it here in this world cannot overcome it there. There is no hell there that is not present here. Only God can save us. (p. 105)
Then he ['Izra'il] motioned me to go further and look, and I saw that the number of people going to heaven were few and the number of people going to hell were many. (p. 101)
How Did Bawa Know These Things?
In some cases, Bawa seemed to be related doctrines that he was simply taking on faith. Several times he finshes one of these discourses about the afterlife by saying things like:
This is what people say. I don't know. If I had studied all this, why would I be here? There would be no reason for me to be here. (p. 91)
Whatever, this is my craziness. I have not been there to see it yet. (p. 168)
Other things he can confirm from his own experience. For example, he relates meeting visiting graves and talking to the people there who are awaiting the day of judgment (pp. 158-159). He also recounts meeting ghosts:
In Ceylon I have captured countless numbers of ghosts and demons, so that they could not harm human beings. Some of these had been conjured up by mantras and made to enter people, some were demons which had been created into gods, and others were ghosts of people who had died prematurely. (pp. 144-145)
Bawa had a vision of hell, discussed previously. He also relates a vision of the Angel of Death ('Izra'il) who has four faces, and of a tree with lights representing each life on earth (pp. 99-101).
Differences from the Doctrine of Reincarnation
Bawa's teaching differs from the Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh teachings on reincarnation in a number of major ways. 
Bawa Muhaiyadden	Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh Teachings	
No birth before human birth	Birth in all lower animal forms before birth in human form becomes possible	
Only one completely human life	May be reborn in human form many times	
Most people never reach enlightenment	Everyone keeps being reborn until they get enlightened	
Can be reborn only in lower forms	People tend to progress to higher forms, though occasionally one can be condemned to rebirth in a lower form due to severely bad actions	
Burial is necessary, and cremation is to be avoided	Cremation is preferred, as it helps to free the soul from this earthly realm so it can move on to its next abode	
Peoples' qualities in this life result from the element on which their soul first fell when the soul was sent out as a ray of light by God	Differing fortunes in this life are explained as reward or punishment for actions in previous lives	
Similarities to the Doctrine of Reincarnation
•	Human birth is considered a rare and precious opportunity for gaining enlightenment.
•	We are held accountable for our actions and rewarded or punished in a life beyond this one. 
Similarities in Method and Realization
Other aspects of Bawa's teaching greatly resemble other types of Eastern mysticism, namely 
•	God is the only Reality and is completely One, undivided
•	We need to turn our attention from the world to God
•	It is possible to merge with God inwardly 
Bawa said,
Say La Illaha Il Allahu. Don't waste your breath. With every breath, say LA ILLAHA IL ALLAHU.
It must be said with your breath. You don't have to make a sound; your tongue silently repeating: La Illaha, nothing is real; Il Allahu, only God exists . . .
Whatever time or whatever place you may be, whether you are walking or sitting or working or sleeping . . . Say it like this. Do not even waste even one second!
- From The Illuminated Prayer, by Coleman Barks and Michael Green. p. 124
Although Bawa was against the use of mantras, this practice greatly resembles the Yogic practice of ajapa japa, or So'ham mantra. Following is a teaching on So'ham mantra from Swami Muktananda, in the book I Am That:
Sit quietly, and watch the going out and coming in of the breath . . . Bhairava says that as the breath comes in, it makes the sound ham, and as the breath goes out, it makes the sound sa. (p. 27)
This is known as ajapa-japa, the unrepeated mantra repetition. One who simply watches the breath, being aware that it is coming in and going out with the sounds ham and sa, is doing ajapa-japa, and this is the true way of practicing mantra. (p. 28)
Muktananda explains that hamsa means I Am That; or, if you focus on the outbreath first, it is heard as so'ham, which means That Am I. Both statements assert your identity with the highest reality. Variations on this mantra are taught by other Hindu masters; for example, some revese the order, associating sa with the inbreath and ham with the outbreath, or give a slightly different pronunciation for the syllables. Also, it is not uncommon for gurus to advise their students to synchronise whatever mantra they are practicing with the inbreath and the outbreath.
It would seem to me, therefore, that these sages of varying traditions are talking about a similar experience of realization, and that they are alike in agreeing that breath awareness is a powerful tool for attaining this realization, especially when combined with an uplifting thought of some kind that focuses one's attention on the divine.
Addendum
I have received some correspondence from devotees of Bawa Muhaiyaddeen that I would like to cite here. 
In the first place, Bawa seems to have had a complex relationship with Hinduism. He is said to have deeply studied Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas and given talks upon them. However, he could be critical of many Hindu gurus, including Muktananda, though Bawa once was invited to visit and gave a teaching at the latter's ashram.
Another correspondent places a good perspective on the deeper spiritual issues in Bawa's teaching. I quote his message with permission:
I just read your piece on Bawa Muhaiyaddeen where you review the To Die Before Death book. I had the privilege of writing the introduction to the book so I feel qualified to comment on your work. You are questing for the one good point, the placeless location where each joins with the All, and that questing has allowed you to benefit from reading Bawa's material. The evidence is your insight that Bawa remains interested in the transforming
power of experience of the Real rather than the coherence of theology or religion. It is to open the heart, the doorway beyond egoism, that should motivate the reader of his work. If that motive is there, then each work will demonstrate a nuanced power to cause the remembrance to happen. He said different things to different people. If one understands that the mind trap is like a labyrinth and the Guru's words the map out, it stands to reason that he would give a slightly different map to different people. Yet, certain principles remain:
1. Only God is real.
2. Wisdom is required to know God.
3. Divine Qualities must be developed to lay the foundation for wisdom to dawn.
4. We are here together to learn, thus always be a student.
So much more to say, but may I suggest that you would enjoy Bawa's Book of God's Love very much,
Love,
Ahamed Muhaiyaddeen
More Information
	To Die Before Death: The Sufi Way of Life, by M. R. Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
Many of Bawa's books are available through Amazon.com, including the book from which most of the quotations in this article were taken.	
 	The Illuminated Prayer, by Coleman Barks and Michael Green. 
A beautifully illustrated introduction to the five-times-daily prayer of Islam, in the light of the teachings of Jellaludin Rumi and Bawa Muhaiyaddeen.	
Or, for much more information, visit the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship Website at http://www.bmf.org/.
The Hindu Theory of World Cycles
In the Light of Modern Science
Traditional Hindu scriptures view history as cyclical in character, with vast repeating series of ages. Each age has its own particular qualities. Interestingly, this system seems to be taken literally by modern Yoga masters such as Swami Muktananda, Baba Hari Dass, Swami Vishnu Tirtha, and so on. As a Western devotee, I found myself wondering exactly what the full system of Hindu cycles is, and how it relates to the findings of modern science. Following is my attempt to explain what I found out.
Traditional Puranic Model
The Hindu Puranas describe a number of cycles within cycles. Discussions of these cycles can become confusing because different cycles are measured in different types of units. For example, the cycles are often described in units of deva years, each of which equals 360 human years.
The following description starts with the smaller cycles and works up to the larger ones. The length of each cycle is given in ordinary human (earth) years, as well other units where appropriate. Large numbers are described using the conventions of American English: thus, a million is a thousand thousand, a billion is a thousand million, a trillion is a thousand billion.
This description is based on numerous sources, which are given in the "References" section at the end of this document.
Maha Yugas
The smallest cycle is called a maha yuga. A maha yuga is 4,320,000 human years. Each maha yuga is subdivided into the following four ages, whose lengths follow a ratio of 4:3:2:1: 
Satya Yuga (also called Krita Yuga) 
This first age is 1,728,000 human years. Also known as the Golden Age or age of Truth. The qualities of this age are: virtue reigns supreme; human stature is 21 cubits; lifespan is a lakh of years, and death occurs only when willed. 
Treta Yuga 
This second age is 1,296,000 human years. Also known as the Silver Age. The qualities of this age are: the climate is three quarters virtue and one quarter sin; human stature is 14 cubits; lifespan is 10,000 years. 
Dvapara Yuga 
This third age is 864,000 human years. Also known as the Bronze Age. The qualities of this age are: the climate is one half virtue and one half sin; lifespan is 1,000 years. 
Kali Yuga 
The fourth and last age is 432,000 human years. Also known as the Iron Age. This is the age in which we are presently living. The qualities of this age are: the climate is one quarter virtue and three quarters sin; human stature is 3.5 cubits; lifespan is 100 or 120 years. 
Toward the end of a Kali Yuga, various calamities cause a good deal of destruction. Baba Hari Dass states that creation disappears at the end of a Maha Yuga and remains in seed form inside Brahma. However, other sources do not suggest anything so drastic; it is possible that Hari Dass was really thinking of the end of Brahma's daytime or Brahma's life when he wrote this description.
Brahma Days (Kalpas)
A kalpa is a single daytime period in the life of Brahma, the creator god. Two kalpas are a day and a night of Brahma.
Each kalpa is composed of 1,000 maha yugas. A kalpa is thus equal to 4.32 billion human years.
At the end of Brahma's daytime period, the Three Worlds (Bhuloka, Bhuvarloka, Swarloka) and the seven underworlds (of the nagas) are temporarily dissolved (pralaya); that is, the same folks can be reincarnated when the next day of Brahma begins.
The Vishnu Purana states that at the end of the daytime period of Brahma, a dreadful drought occurs that lasts 100 years, and all the waters are dried up. The sun changes into seven suns, and the three worlds (Bhurloka or Earth, Bhuvarloka or the lowest heaven, and Svarloka or the next higher heaven) and the underworlds are burned bare of life. The inhabitants of Bhuvarloka and Svarkloka flee to the next higher heaven, Maharloka, to escape the heat; and then to the next higher heaven, Janaloka.
Then mighty clouds form and the three worlds are completely flooded with water. The lord Vishnu reposes on the waters in meditative rest for another whole kalpa (4.32 billion years) before renewing the creation.
The destruction that takes place at the end of a daytime of Brahma is referred to as naimittika, which is incidental or occasional. The characteristic of this destruction is that the three worlds continue to exist but are made uninhabitable. The souls of individuals also continue to exist to be reincarnated in the next daytime of Brahma.
Brahma Years
A year of Brahma is composed of 360 day/night cycles of Brahma, or 720 kalpas, or 8.64 billion human years.
Brahma Life
The lifespan of Brahma is 100 Brahma years, or 72,000 kalpas, or 311.04 trillion human years.
At the end of the life of Brahma, all worlds are completely dissolved (mahapralaya). No one is reincarnated from these worlds ever again.
Manvantaras
Another cycle that overlaps the others is that of manvantaras. Each kalpa is reigned over by a succession of 14 Manus, and the reign of each Manu is called a manvantara. A single manvantara is approximately 71 maha yugas.
Coomaraswamy states: "Each Manvantara is followed by a Deluge, which destroys the existings continents and swallows up all living beings, except the few who are preserved for the repeopling of the earth."
Our Position in History
We are located in the fifty-first Brahma year of the life of our Brahma.
Within that Brahma year, we are in the first Brahma day, called the Varaha kalpa.
Within that Brahma day, we are in the seventh manvantara, and in the 28th maha yuga of that manvantara. This would place us at about the 454th maha yuga of the 1,000 maha yugas that comprise this day of Brahma.
Within this maha yuga, we are in Kali Yuga. The 5100th year of Kali Yuga will correspond to the year 2,000 A.D. That means that we are fairly early in Kali Yuga and this age will continue more than 426,000 more years.
Variant Interpretations of Hindu Chronology
The "Traditional Puranic Model" described above is agreed upon by most authors on Hinduism and Yoga. Six different authors, listed at the end of this paper, describe this model identically. 
However, several other authors, some of them well-known Hindu teachers, have published descriptions of the cycle of ages that differ from the traditional Puranic model. These variant theories are described below.
Sri Yukteswar
In the introduction to his book The Holy Science, Sri Yukteswar describes an interesting variant of the Hindu theory of ages. According to him,
...the sun, with its planets and their moons, takes some star for its dual and revolves around it in about 24,000 years of our earth-a celestial phenomenon which causes the backward movement of the equinoctial points around the zodiac. The sun also has another motion by which it revolves round a grand center called Vishnunabhi, which is the seat of the creative power, Brahma, the universal magnetism. Brahma regulates dharma, the mental virtue of the internal world.
Yukteswar goes on to explain that the sun's 24,000 year revolution around its companion star takes the sun progressively closer, and then progressively further away from the mystic center Vishnunabhi. In his system, dharma increases as we approach Vishnunabhi and decreases as we draw away from it. The cycle of yugas takes place twice in each 24,000 year revolution. As the sun recedes from Vishnunabhi, the ages pass in the usual order: Satya, Treta, Dvapara, Kali. As the sun approaches Vishnunabhi, the ages pass in the opposite order: Kali, Dvapara, Treta, Satya.
The length of the yugas is: Satya Yuga, 4800 years; Treta Yuga, 3600 years; Dwapara Yuga, 2400 years; and Kali Yuga, 1200 years. The yugas during the approach to Vishnunabhi he calls 'ascending' yugas; those during the retreat from Vishnunabhi he calls 'descending' yugas. The most recent ascending Kali Yuga began in 499 A.D. Since 1599 A.D. we have been in the ascending Dwapara Yuga, with consequent advances in human culture and knowledge.
Yukteswar goes on to say that the Hindu almanacs, which correspond to the traditional Puranic model described previously, are in error. The error crept in during the dark years of Kali Yuga when scholars misinterpreted the scriptures. Regarding the conventional view that we are currently in Kali Yuga, Yukteswar says flatly that it is not true.
Yukteswar's model thus differs from the traditional in the following respects: 
•	A cycle of four yugas takes 24,000 years instead of 4,320,000. 
•	The yugas alternate between ascending and descending trends instead of always proceeding in the same order. This alternation becomes necessary once you posit that the ages result from our changing distance from Vishnunabhi, rather than a deliberate divine intervention at the end of Kali Yuga. 
•	The greater cycles like kalpas, manvantars, and lifespan of Brahma go unmentioned. 
Paramahansa Yogananda
Paramahansa Yogananda was a disciple of Sri Yukteswar and one of the best-known Hindu teachers ever to visit the West. He wrote the perrenial bestseller Autobiography of a Yogi.
In the latter book, Yogananda describes and endorses Yukteswar's theory of world cycles. However, in a footnote, Yogananda adds the following:
The Hindu scriptures place the present world-age as occurring within the Kali Yuga of a much longer universal cycle than the simple 24,000 year ecquinoctial cycle with which Sri Yukteswar was concerned. The universal cycle of the scriptures of 4,300,560,000 years in extent, and measures out a Day of Creation. This vast figure is based on the relationship between the length of the solar year and a multiple of pi (3.1416, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle).
The life span for a whole universe, according to the ancient seers, is 314,159,000,000,000 solar years, or "One Age of Brahma."
The Hindu scriptures declare that an earth such as ours is dissolved for one of two reasons: the inhabitants as a whole become either completely good or completely evil. The world mind thus generates a power that releases the captive atoms held together as an earth.
This statement seems at first to reconcile Yukteswar's theory with the traditional view, but in fact actually contradicts both.
Regarding Yukteswar's theory, in his own writing he clearly states that the traditional Hindu almanacs are in error and suggests how the error came about. He states that the length of the yugas, given in ordindary years in the scriptures, were misinterpreted by later scholars as being counted in units of "deva years" which are much longer. This method led the scholars to believe that the yugas are much longer than they really are. Yukteswar's theory is thus clearly intended to replace, not to supplement, the traditional interpretation.
Regarding the "much longer universal cycle" that Yogananda describes, he states that a Day of Creation is 4,300,560,000 years. This is close but not identical to the traditional number, which is 4,320,000,000 years. Similarly, Yogananda gives 314,159,000,000,000 years the the life of Brahma, whereas traditionally the number is slightly different: 311,040,000,000,000 years. It seems likely that Yogananda arrived at these different figures because he wanted to derive them from some multiple of the ratio pi. The exact manner in which pi enters into the calculation is, unfortunately, not explained in his footnote.
David Frawley
David Frawley is a Westerner who has become a scholar of Vedic scriptures, Jyotish (Indian astrology), and Ayurveda (Indian medicine). He has written a number of books on various aspects of Vedic culture and wisdom.
Like Yogananda, Frawley adopts Yukteswar's 24,000 year maha yuga and views it as a smaller cycle within the larger maha yugas described traditionally. Frawley likewise introduces some twists in the way he interprets both the smaller and the larger cycle.
With regard to the 24,000 year cycle, Frawley begins like Yukteswar by ascribing the cycle to the sun's revolution around a companion star. Frawley says that this revolution varies the amount of cosmic light we receive from the galactic center. Thus, he seems to have identified Yukteswar's Vishnunabhi with the center of the galaxy, which Yukteswar never explicitly does. Still, it is a plausible interpretation.
Unfortunately, a 24,000 year orbit would make only a negligible difference in our sun's distance from the galactic center, which is at a vast remove from us. Presumably because of this, Frawley abandons Yukteswar's notion that it is our varying distance from Vishnunabhi that causes the cycles of yugas. Instead, he posits that our companion star is a dark star, and when it passes between us and Vishnunabhi, tends to eclipse some of the cosmic light from that source, thus causing the decline into the less inspired ages like Kali Yuga.
In describing the greater cycle, Frawley states
The greater cycle consists of 8,640,000 years, and what it corresponds to astronomically is not now known. In this cycle we are in a dark or Iron age, whose duration is 432,000 years. Exactly when it began or when it will end are not clearly known either. (Some begin it at 3102 B.C. but this is just to confuse it with the beginning of the Bronze age or the dark half of the lesser cycle.)
In this passage, Frawley gives the traditional length for Kali yuga while giving double the traditional length for the cycle as a whole. Why? Presumably he considers that the greater cycle follows the same pattern as the lesser, with both ascending and descending yugas. Thus a full cycle would consist of Satya-Treta-Dvapara-Kali-Kali-Dvapara-Treta-Satya. Presumably also the whole cycle follows as a result of our overall revolution around some object more distant than the "companion star" or "dark star."
Alain Danielou
Alain Danielou has written a number of books on the spiritual traditions of India. In the book While the Gods Play, he quotes the Linga Purana and derives numbers from it much different than those in the traditional interpretation described previously. In this version, the life span of the gods is 4,320,000 human years. This period is divided into 71.42 manvantaras. Each manvantara is divided into the four yugas: Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. As a result, the length of these yugas is as follows: 
•	Satya (or Krita) Yuga: 24,195 human years. 
•	Treta Yuga: 18,146 human years. 
•	Dvapara Yuga: 12,097 human years. 
•	Kali Yuga: 6,048,72 human years. 
By Danielou's reckoning, Kali Yuga began in 3012 B.C. and will end in 2442 A.D. By that point, the last traces of the present human race will have disappeared. We are supposed to be the seventh manifestation of the human race; the previous ones appeared in 419,964 B.C.; 359,477 B.C.; 298,990 B.C.; 238,503 B.C.; 178,016 B.C.; and 118,529 B.C. Our race appeared in 58,042 B.C., which according to Danielou corresponds to the advent of Cro-Magnon man. Danielou also suggests that Neanderthal man might be the race that precedes ours. 
Danielou's version thus differs from the usual theory in the following ways: 
•	He takes 4,320,000 as the lifespan of the gods, rather than the length of a maha yuga. 
•	He divides the 4,320,000 period into 71.42 manvantaras, rather than dividing a kalpa into 14 manvantaras. His manvantaras are thus much shorter than in the usual version. 
•	He states that each manvantara contains a single mahayuga, instead of the usual 71 maha yugas. His maha yugas are thus much shorter than in the usual version. 
Danielou makes a couple of other comments worth mentioning. On the subject of why the scriptures portray a year as 360 days in length, he states
The number of days in a year is not constant. The rhythm of the earth's rotation varies over very long periods. A figure of 360 is considered to be the average.
In referring to the cyclical nature of the ages, Danielou also makes the following very interesting statement:
The circle is an illusion, for the cosmic mechanism is in reality always formed of spirals. Nothing ever returns to its point of departure. However, the circle does give us a simplified image.
Unfortunately, he does not expand on this concept any further.
Rishi Singh Gerwal
Rishi Singh Gerwal was the author and apparently also the publisher of a small pamphlet on ancient prophecies, published in Santa Barbara in the 1940s. The pamphlet contains translations of various prophetic portions of the Mahabharata.
In the Introduction, Gerwal gives the following numbers:
1 kalpa = 22 septillion, 394 sextillion, 880 quadtillion human years. 
1 kalpa = 2 manvantaras (traditionally this would be 14 manvantaras)
1 manvantara = 71 maha yugas (this is the same as the traditional reckoning)
Gerwal goes on to give the traditional lengths for the Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali Yugas. He then states that the present Kali yuga has 210,000 years to go. He also states that 22,394,880,000,000,000,000,000,000 years have already passed since the start of the kalpa. Since this number is the same one he gave as the length of a kalpa, we are presumably at the very end of this present kalpa.
Oddly enough, if you multiply maha yugas of 4,320,000 years times 71 to make a manvantara and then times 2 to make a kalpa, the result is only 613,440,000 years rather than the 22 septillion Gerwal states as his total.
The 22 septillion number is far greater than the traditional length of a kalpa, and the statement that 2 manvantaras make a kalpa is far fewer than the traditional number of 14.
Yugas and Science
If we restrict our attention to the traditional interpretation, we find that it makes a number of significant predictions that can be compared with the findings of modern science.
Great Culture Preceded Us
Beginning about 3,894,000 years ago, there is supposed to have been a great civilisation in which people were happier, taller, and much longer lived than they are today.
By contrast, scientists currently believe that homo sapiens evolved from more primitive forbears about 300,000 to 400,000 years ago. Humanity is supposed to have domesticated plants about 12,000 years ago, and animals shortly thereafter. Prior to that point, humans are thought to have been hunter-gatherers and possibly scavengers.
The scientific view is based on fossil evidence. The mystery is how an advanced civilization posited by the Hindu theory could have vanished without leaving any trace for us to find.
Cyclic Catastrophes
A number of periodic catastrophes are described in the Hindu scriptures: 
•	At the end of each Kali Yuga, some type of destruction takes place. The most recent instance would be a bit under 4 million years ago. Other instances should be found every 4,320,000 years before that. 
•	At the end of each manvantara, a great flood wipes out most life on earth. The most recent occurrence would be 120,534,000 years ago. Other instances would occur at intervals of 306,720,000 years. 
•	At the end of the kalpa, all life on earth is destroyed. The most recent instance would be 2,267,574,000 years ago. 
•	At the end of a life of Brahma, the entire universe and all its heavens and hells are destroyed. The current universe would have come into existence more than 150 billion years ago. 
Interestingly, current scientific research does support the existence of occasional mass extinctions in earth's history. These include the following major extinctions: 
•	At the Ordovician/Silurian transition, about 425 million years ago. 
•	Near the Devonian/Carboniferous transition, about 345 million years ago. 
•	At the Permian/Triassic transition, about 230 million years ago. 
•	At the Triassic/Jurassic transition, about 180 million years ago. 
•	At the Cretaceous/Tertiary transition, about 63 million years ago. 
Additionally, some scientists have identified what they believe is a cycle of periodic mass extinctions occurring every 26 million years.
Unfortunately, none of these specified dates corresponds to the catastrophes called for by the Hindu theory.
Current scientific estimates of the age of the universe range from 7 billion to 20 billion years. By contrast, the Hindu theory calls for a universe more than 150 billion years old. 
On the other hand, the dates ascribed by scientists to the various geologic periods have been revised a number of times on the basis of new evidence, and could possibly be revised again in the future. Further, cosmology could reasonably be described as an infant science, and the age it ascribes to the universe as a whole might also change on the basis of new theories and evidence.
Downward Trend
By far the greater divergence from modern science is in the overall pattern of the Hindu theory. The Hindu and scientific patterns differ in the following ways: 
•	The main pattern in the Hindu theory is one of cycles. 
•	In the Hindu theory, life follows a downward trend most of the time, from the finest age to the worst. At the end of the worst age, Kali Yuga, divine intervention rapidly destroys the wicked and restores everything to its pristine state. 
•	In the Hindu theory, humanity is always present. The concept of evolution is confined to spiritual evolution; that is, each soul takes life in a series of lower to higher animal forms before finally incarnating as a human being. 
By contrast, the fossil record of life on earth indicates that life began with very simple forms and later developed more complex organisms. The advent of humanity appears to be an extremely recent development when compared to the history of life on earth. Humanity itself does not appear to have existed long enough to have participated in the vast cycles of ages posited by Hindu theory.
Conclusion
There is no scientific support for the Hindu theory of world cycles. Further, current scientific theory contradicts Hindu theory in many respects. It is best to begin by acknowledging this truth, as such an acknowledgement can form the basis for interesting discussions of the different ways of knowing that underly the more specific differences. Such, however, must be the substance of another paper.
References
Traditional Puranic Chronology
(Anonymous), Introduction to Kashmir Shaivism. S.Y.D.A. Foundation, Oakland, California, 1977. See pp. 69-70.
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy & Sister Nivedita, Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1967. See pp. 392-395.
Baba Hari Dass, Silence Speaks. Sri Rama Foundation, Santa Cruz, California, 1977. See pp. 79-80.
Cornelia Dimmitt & J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Rupa & Co., Calcutta etc., 1983. See pp. 19-24, 36-43.
Swami Vishnu Tirtha Maharaj, Devatma Shakti (Kundalini): Divine Power. Pub. Swami Shivom Tirth, 1962. See pp. 29-30.
W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology. Rupa & Co., Calcutta etc., 1983. See pp. 353-360.
Variant Interpretations of Hindu Chronology
Alain Danielou, While the Gods Play: Shaiva Oracles and Predictions on the Cycles of History and the Destiny of Mankind. Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont, 1987. See pp. 194-199.
David Frawley, Vedic Astrology Correspondence Course, Part I, Section 1. Vedic Research Center, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1986. See pp. 16-18.
Rishi Singh Grewal, World Prophecies: Dictators and Taxation Foretold in Ancient Hindu Philosophy, pub. Rishi Singh Grewal, Santa Barbara, California, 1941. Esp. pp. 1-5.
Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi. Self-Realization Fellowship, Los Angeles, 1979. See pp. 193-194.
Jnanavatar Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri, The Holy Science: Kaivalya Darsanam. Self-Realization Fellowship, Los Angeles, 1984. See pp. 7-20.
Summaries of Scientific Theory
Funk & Wagnall's New Encycopedia, 1986 revision. Various articles.
Rick Gore, "Extinctions," National Geographic, June 1989.

Karma Bibliography
This page lists all the books that are cited in this study of Karma and Reincarnation. The books in this list are divided into the following categories: 
•	Scriptures Cited in this Study 
•	Modern Works Cited in this Study 
Notes: For those books that are in print, I have added links to Amazon.com where you can order them online if you want. Additionally, I have collected a selection of books related specifically to karma and reincarnation at Baharna Books: Karma and Reincarnation.
Scriptures Cited in this Study:
Bhagavad Gita, trans. Swami Nikhilananda. New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 1979. 
Brahma-Sutra-Bhasya of Sri Sankaracarya, trans. Swami Gambhirananda. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1983.
Classical Hindu Mythology : A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, ed. & trans. Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. Buitenen. Click here for information about ordering this book
The Laws of Manu, trans. Wendy Doniger with Brian K. Smith. London, etc.: Penguin Books, 1991. 
(Guru Gita) The Nectar of Chanting, (no author). South Fallsburg, New York: SYDA Foundation, 1984.
(Patanjali) How to Know God : The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali, Translated with a New Commentary by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood. 
Portable World Bible, ed. Robert O. Ballou.  
(Upanisads) The Principle Upanisads, trans. S. Radhakrishnan. New Delhi: Indus (Harper Collins Publishers), 1995.
(Upanisads) The Upanishads Breath of the Eternal, trans. Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick Manchester. Click here for information about ordering this book
Source Book in Indian Philosophy, ed. S. Radhakrishnan and C. A. Moore. 
Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha, ed. E. A. Burtt. New York, etc.: New American Library, no date. 
Modern Works Cited in this Study:
John Blofeld, The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet : A Practical Guide. Paperback / Published 1992. Click here for information about ordering this book 
Joseph Campbell, Myths to Live by. Paperback / Published 1993.  
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy and Sister Nivedita, Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists. Paperback / Published 1967. 
Baba Hari Dass, Silence Speaks: From the Chalkboard of Baba Hari Dass. Paperback / Published 1997. 
Alexandra David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet. Paperback / Published 1971. 
John Fairly and Simon Welfare, Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1984.
(Great Master) Daryai Lal Kapur, Call of the Great Master. Punjab: Radha Soami Satsang Beas, 1964.
Joseph Head and S. L. Cranston, Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology. Wheaton, Ill., etc.: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1985.
Joseph Head, Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology. Paperback / Published 1989. 
Harish Johari, Chakras : Energy Centers of Transformation. Paperback / Published 1988. 
Sant Keshavadas, Liberation from Karma and Rebirth. Washington, D.C.: Temple of Cosmic Religion, 1976.
Mother Meera, Answers. Paperback / Published 1991. 
Swami Muktananda, I Am That : The Science of the Hamsa Mantra. Paperback / Published 1992. 
Swami Muktananda, Play of Consciousness : A Spiritual Autobiography. Paperback / Published 1994. 
Swami Muktananda (3), Satsang with Baba: Volume 1. Oakland: S.Y.D.A. Foundation, 1974.
Swami Muktananda (4), Satsang with Baba: Volume 2. Oakland: S.Y.D.A. Foundation, 1976.
Swami Muktananda (5), Satsang with Baba: Volume 5. Oakland: S.Y.D.A. Foundation, 1978.
Wendy Doniger O Flaherty (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. Hardcover / Published 1980. 
S.s Rama Rao Pappu, The Dimensions of Karma. Hardcover / Published 1994. 
Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1923 (Eighth Impression, 1966).
Ramana Maharshi, ed. David Godman, Be As You Are : The Teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi. Paperback / Published 1991. 
Bruce R. Reichenbach, The Law of Karma: A Philosophical Study. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.
J. Marques Riviere, Tantrik Yoga. New York: Samuel Weiser, 1970.
Swami Rama Tirtha, In Woods of God Realization, Volume IV. Lucknow, India: Rama Tirtha Pratishthan, 1973.
Swami Sivananda (1), Practice of Karma Yoga. Divine Life Society, Distt. Tehri-Garwhal, U.P., Himalayas, India, 1985.
Swami Sivananda (2), What Becomes of the Soul After Death. Divine Life Society, Distt. Tehri-Garwhal, U.P., Himalayas, India, 1979.
Swami Vishnu Tirtha, Devatma Shakti. Rishikesh: Swami Shivom Tirth, 1962.
John Woodroffe (1), Introduction to Tantra Shastra.
John Woodroffe (2), The Serpent Power. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1974.
John Woodroffe (2) (as Arthur Avalon), The Serpent Power. Paperback / Published 1974. 
Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi. Paperback / Published 1994. 
For additional books on these subjects, refer to 
•	Baharna Books: Karma and Reincarnation at http://members.home.net/baharna/karmabks.htm